CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

OPERATION
 Contents
 Understanding of Key Terms
 Types of Compressor
 Impeller and Centrifugal Force
 Speed and Compression Ratio
 Surging
 Main Components
 Vibrations
 Oil Circulation System
 Cooling
 Over Speed Trip
 Start up / Shutdown
 Alarm and Interlock System
 Introduction

Purpose of Compressors is to move gases from one place to

other. Following machines are used;
 Compressors
 Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges
from 35 psi to as high as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
 Blowers
 Move large vol. of air or gas at pressure up to 50 psi.
 Fans
 Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static
forces. Discharge pressure ranges from a few inches of
water to about 1 psi.
 Purpose of Compression

 Requirement of chemical process industries as some

reactions take place at certain temperature and pressure
conditions.
 Compression of gases to liquefy for storage.
 Compression and subsequent expansion of gases for cooling
purpose.
 Pressurized air is used for instrumentation.
 Compression

 Molecules always travel at high speed, they strike against

walls of enclosed vessel and produce pressure.

 Temperature affects molecule’s average speed. When heat

is added in fixed volume of a gas, the molecules travel
faster and hit the walls of vessel more often and with greater
force.

 If the enclosed vessel is fitted with a piston so that the gas

can squeeze into smaller space, the molecule travel is now
restricted and pressure increases.
Confined Gas before and after Heating
Volume Reduces & Pressure Increases
Compression Process
Absolute Pressure
 Molecular Weight

Sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.

Mass Flow
Volume Flow
Pressure Ratio

Ratio between
abs. discharge pressure
and
abs. suction pressure.
 Potential & Kinetic Energy
 Potential Energy
 The energy that a body possesses due to its position or
molecular arrangement.
e.g. wound spring, still water behind a dam, compressed
gas in a cylinder possesses P.E.
 Kinetic Energy
 The energy that a body possesses due to its motion.
e.g. moving hammer, flowing water, flowing gas from a
cylinder possesses K.E.
Example
 Work is done in lifting the ball above ground level.

 The ball possesses P.E due to its position.

 As the ball drops, it acquire K.E due to its motion.

(P.E is converted into K.E)

Types of Compressors
Application of Compressors
 Advantages of Centrifugal Compressors

Axial compressors : For low heads and high capacities

Centrifugal compressors : For large heads and capacities.
 Discharge flow is relatively free of pulsation.
 Mechanical design permits high through puts, capacity
limitation is rarely a problem.
 Centrifugal Compressors are capable of efficient
performance over a wide range of pressure and capacities.
 These are relatively small, occupy less space, operate with
minimum attention and quieter.
 Requires less maintenance due to simple construction.
 Have lower first costs and lower maintenance costs.
 More economic when large volume of gas is handled.
Disadvantages of Centrifugal Compressors

 Take more horsepower for compression and thus have a

lower efficiency.
 Discharge pressure limitation.
 Effect of gas density and temperature.
 Problem of surge phenomenon.
 Centripetal & Centrifugal Force

 Force pulling the ball in a

circular path towards the
centre is centripetal
force.
 If string breaks or
centripetal force is Centripetal Force
removed, the ball flies
out in a straight line.
 Centrifugal tendency of
the ball is to pull away
from the centre of
rotation or to pull against
the centripetal force. Centrifugal Force
 Centripetal & Centrifugal Force
 As disc begins to move, one of the blades
forces the ball to move.
 Ball is forced away from the centre of the
disc due to lack of centripetal force.
 For each rotation, point A has the largest
distance to cover.
 Any thing that is being carried along by the
rotation of the disc has a greater velocity
when it is near the outer rim of the disc.
 Any thing being carried along by the
rotation of the disc also travels outward
from the centre to the outer rim, it gains
velocity.
 Impeller & Centrifugal Force

 As impeller rotates, blades force

the air in the impeller to move.
 As there is no centripetal force,
the rotation forces the air
molecules outward from the
centre / eye of the impeller.
 As the air molecules moves
outward, they gain velocity.
 Impeller adds both pressure and velocity to the air.
 A compressor that uses centrifugal tendency to impart
pressure and velocity to a gas is a centrifugal compressor.
 Impeller & Centrifugal Force

 Increase in velocity away from the

eye creates a low pressure area at
the eye.
 This low pressure area at the eye
causes a suction which allows
more gas to enter.
 Impeller does work on the gas which is converted into the
energy that the gas gains.
 Energy that the gas gains is in the form of both pressure and
velocity.
 Gas at the tip of the impeller blades is at maximum velocity.
Centrifugal Force
 Diffuser & Volute
 As the gas leaves the impeller, it is
thrust into a passage way called
DIFFUSER.
 Radius of diffuser is larger than the
impeller.
 Flow path of the gas through the
diffuser is in a larger spiral.
 Larger flow path and no direct action
by the impeller blades causes gas
velocity to decrease and its pressure
increases.
 Gas passes from diffuser into the
VOLUTE where conversion from
velocity to pressure continues.
 Multistage Compressor
 Each impeller and diffuser makes
a stage.
 As the gas leaves the 1st impeller,
it gains some velocity & pressure.
 Increased velocity is partially
converted into pressure in diffuser.
 From diffuser, gas enters the
return passage which guides it into
the eye of the next impeller.
 Each impeller adds to the total
energy (pressure & temperature)
of the gas.
 Work done by a compressor is the
total energy added to a gas by a
compressor.
 Capacity

 Capacity : The amount or volume of gas that a

compressor moves in a given period of time. ( M3 / Hr,
CFM, Kg / Hr )
 Capacity Limit : Maximum rate of flow of gas through a
compressor.
 Efficiency of dynamic compressors decreases when it is

near its capacity limit.

 For max. efficiency, a dynamic compressor should be

operated at less than its capacity limit.

RPM (Revolutions per min.) & Horsepower
 Velocity of the gas increases with increase in RPM.
 The faster the impeller RPM, more work is done on the gas.
 As RPM increases, the capacity of the compressor increases.
 A gas with a higher density weighs more for the same volume
as a less dense gas.
 Incase of denser gas, disch. pressure for same RPM increases.
 At a given RPM;
 Incase of heavier gas, the work done per pound of gas handled

is the same as the work done on a lighter gas.

 Actual CFM of gas that the compressor moves is constant, but

with a denser gas more pounds of gas will be moved.

 With an increase of weight handled for a given time, the rate of

work increases.
 With an increase in the rate of work there is an increase in

horsepower required to compress the gas.

 RPM & Compression Ratio (R)

 Total head added depends upon;

 Design of compressor

 Amount of flow

 Operating speed, RPM

 Total head of compressor increases with increase in RPM.

 Compression ratio increases with increase in gas density.
 As suction pressure increases, compressor causes a higher
discharge pressure for the same head and compression ratio.
 SURGING

 Suppose a compressor is connected to a large system having

a high capacity.
 When compressor is started, there is little resistance to the
discharge of air
 Compressor capacity at first is high.
 As more air is delivered and the system fills, the capacity
need of the system is reduced.
 If the system does not use the air as quickly as the
compressor delivers it, the pressure in the system increases.
 The resistance to the discharge of the compressor increases.
 Capacity of the compressor decreases.
 As pressure in the system increases, the compressor has to
do more work per pound of air.
 SURGING
 Maximum head of a dynamic compressor represents the
max. amount of work it can do on the gas to maintain flow.
 If system continues to use less air than is delivered to it,
system pressure keeps increasing and head required to
maintain flow keeps increasing.
 When head needed to maintain flow increases above the
maximum head of the compressor, flow stops.
 When flow stops, the pressure within compressor becomes
less than the pressure in the system and air may flow from
system into the compressor.
 After some air flows back into the compressor or is used by
the system, pressure of the system decreases.
 As system pressure drops below the maximum head of
compressor, the compressor again delivers gas into the
system.
 SURGING
 As the compressor begins to deliver gas again, it operates at a
lower & lower capacity and higher & higher head or pressure.
 If system still uses less air than is delivered to it, compressor
reaches its max. head and flow stoppage occurs again.
 Rapid flow of gas back & forth in compressor is called surging.
 Surging occurs when compressor is operated below min.
capacity and flow drops below the min. stable level.
 Surging causes severe vibrations in compressor and piping
which may cause damage to the compressor.
 Antisurge valves protect the compressor against surging.
 As gas is released from discharge line vent, flow increases and
prevents the compressor from surging.
 Vents are used when gas is not hazardous or valuable.
 If gas is hazardous or valuable, a bypass is used which moves
the gas from discharge back to the suction .
 SURGING

 As head increases,
capacity decreases.
 If consumption
decreases, discharge
pressure increases.
 Operating point of
compressor at 104%
rated head is closer to
surge line than at 102%.
 As head necessary to maintain flow increases further, the
operating point of the compressor approaches the surge line
and compressor starts surging.
 Capacity at surge is only 50% rated capacity.
Antisurge Control Loop
 Main Components – Split Casing

Horizontally Split Casing :

 Two halves bolted together
 On removing top half, internals
are easily accessible.
 Joints thru which gas can escape
is of a larger area.
Vertically Split Casing :
 Sealed by 02 covers bolted to the
ends of the casing.
 Pulling of cover & internals is
required to reach the components.
 Joints thru which gas can escape
are only at the casing ends.
 Split Casing

Horizontally Split Casing :

 High pressure more in contact
with the joint.
 Requires most sealing area.

Vertically Split Casing :

 Used for moderate to high
pressure service.
 Minimizes the possibility of
leaks.
 Impellers

 Adds velocity to the gas.

Open Impeller :
 Used for high heads and small to large
flow in single stage compressors only.
 Gas flow is least controlled.

Semi Enclosed Impeller :

 Used for large flow, usually in single stage
compressors or the first stage in multi stage
compressors.
Enclosed Impeller :
 Used mainly in multi stage impellers.
 Most controlled flow of gas.
 Impellers
 Impeller is shrunk on to a
shaft and rotates with it.
 Impeller is prevented
from turning on the shaft
by a key.
 Unbalanced or loose
impeller vibrates.
 To prevent vibration,
impeller must be shrunk
on to the shaft and well
balanced.
 Diaphragms
 Located between impellers.
 Adjacent walls of diaphragm
form a passage called diffuser.
 After diffuser, gas enters the
return passage which guides it
into next impeller.
 Made of cast iron or steel and
don't rotate with shaft.
 Guide Vanes
 Located before each impeller.
 Can be stationary or adjustable.
 Guide flow of gas efficiently
into eye of the impeller.
 In multi stage compressors,
guide vanes are placed at the
end of the return passage of
diaphragm.
 Gas leaves impeller, pass thru
diffuser passage and in return
passage is guided by guide
vanes into the next impeller.
 Adjustable Guide Vanes

Adjustable guide vanes are used to:

 Control angle of gas flow into
impeller eye which affects the
performance curve of impeller.
 Manually control the capacity of
compressor.
 Automatically adjust the
capacity to keep compressor
within its operating range.

Capacity and angle of flow can be best

controlled with adjustable type vanes.
 Shaft Seals

 Rotor shaft passes thru

diaphragms.
 Diaphragms and shaft are not
attached to each other.
 Gas pressure increases as it flows
from suction to discharge.
 Gas can flow from higher to
lower pressure region thru the
space b/w shaft and diaphragm.
 Seals are used between shaft and
diaphragm to prevent leakage.
 Most common seal is Labyrinth
Seal.
 Labyrinth Seal
 Set of metal rings or teeth that
encircle the shaft.
 Teeth don't touch the shaft.
 Rings or teeth are made of soft
metal to avoid shaft damage in
case of accidental contact.
 Rings or teeth are also sharp
so that any friction generated
by contact would be small.
 As gas enters the space
between the teeth, it slows
down and changes direction
and resulting turbulence
resists the flow of gas.
 Labyrinth Seal
 Labyrinth seals don't prevent all
leakages & used in areas where
it is acceptable to allow leakage.
 Some high vel. gas don’t change
direction but skips between teeth
and the shaft in a straight line.
Interlocking Labyrinth :
 Shaft has teeth that interlocks
with the seal.
 Gas cannot flow thru the seal in
a straight line.
 As gas is forced to change
direction, it encounters
resistance to flow.
 Labyrinth Seal

 Widely used as interstage seals because

∆P b/w stages is normally small enough
for a labyrinth seal to be effective.
 Also used to reduce leakages between
shaft and casing.
 Incase of toxic gas, labyrinth seal is
ported to avoid venting into atmosphere.
 Port is placed on the seal between
process gas and atmosphere.
 From port, gas can be piped to some safe
location.
 Labyrinth Seal – Inert Gas

 Some seals are ported to

force inert gas into
labyrinth of the seal.
 If pressure of inert gas is
higher than the
compressor’s internal
pressure, compressor gas
cannot leak to atmosphere.
 Some inert gas leak to
atmosphere thru labyrinth
seal.
 Vibrations - Bearings

 Movement along the axis of the shaft

is axial motion, or thrust.
 Off-center shaft movement is radial
motion.
 There are forces in the compressor
that tend to cause axial or radial
motion. For example, gas pushing
against the sides of the impellers
tends to cause end-to-end or axial, or
thrust motion.
 An unbalanced impeller can cause
up-and-down vibration or radial
motion.
 Bearings

 Bearings are used to support the shaft

with a minimum of friction.
 Bearings permit the shaft to rotate freely
& prevent axial / radial motion.
 Journal bearing prevents radial motion.
 Axial motion is possible with a journal
bearing.
 Thrust bearing prevents axial motion.
 Rubbing surface of both journal & thrust
bearings is a low friction metal (Babbitt)
which is lubricated by a film of oil.
 Oil is supplied under pressure through
grooves on the bearing surface.
 Bearings
 Pressure of oil insures an adequate
flow to prevent overheating.
 Oil becomes trapped in wedges
between the shaft and the pads.
 Oil helps to prevent friction, or
contact between shaft and the
pads.
 Thrust collar rotates with the shaft.
 Thrust shoes prevent axial motion.
 Thrust collar and thrust shoe are
separated by a thin film of oil.
 In a centrifugal compressor, shaft
seals are set b/w high-pressure gas
and bearing.
 Balancing Drum
 Pressure on rotor is higher
on discharge side.
 This imbalance of pressure
causes an axial force or
thrust that pushes the rotor
towards the suction end.
 On small or low pressure
compressors, axial motion
of rotor shaft toward suction
end can be prevented by a
thrust bearing.
 When axial thrust is too great for a thrust bearing, a
balancing drum is used to equalize thrust.
 Balancing Drum
 Balancing drum is attached to
shaft at discharge end of the
compressor.
 One end of drum is vented to
the suction end of compressor.
 End of the drum that is vented
is nearest the end of the shaft.
 Pressure on vented end is the
same as the suction pressure.
 Non-vented side of the drum is
exposed to the gas at discharge
pressure.
 Discharge gas pushes on the
balancing drum, exerting a
force in the direction of the
discharge end of the
compressor.
 Balancing Drum
 Impeller thrust causes axial force
in the direction of the suction end
of the compressor.
 Pressure difference at balancing
drum causes axial force in the
direction of the discharge end of
the compressor.
 The two forces balance each
other because they are exerted in
the opposite directions.
 To prevent leakage around the
circumference of the drum, a
labyrinth seal is used.
 Plugging of balancing line is
avoided because thrust bearing
may fail due to overloading.
Rotor Assembly
Stationary Components
Rotating Components
Gas Flow
Compression
 Oil Circulation System

 Oil is supplied under pressure to the

bearings.
 Main oil pump force the oil to flow
from reservoir to bearings.
 Oil becomes too thin if gets too hot.
 Oil cannot maintain a protective
film between metal parts if it
becomes too thin.
 Oil is cooled in a cooler in order to
cool the bearings.
 Too cold oil may get viscous and may not flow around bearings
well enough to lubricate them properly.
 Oil also passes through an oil filter to be cleaned of impurities.
 Failure of oil system may result severe damage from heat and
friction and bearings may fail or seize.
 Oil Circulation System

 Two oil pumps are used to maintain the flow of oil.

 Shaft driven main oil pump is used during normal operations
and auxiliary pump is used in case of emergencies / startup.
 At startup, since the shaft is not rotating, the main oil pump
does not operate.
 At shutdown, the main oil pump is again put out of
operation as the shaft slows down and auxiliary pump again
keeps oil circulating through the bearings.
 Compressors are stopped by an automatic trip when the
lubricating oil pressure becomes too low.
 Low oil-pressure alarm warns if oil pressure begins to fall.
 High oil-temperature alarm warns when the temperature
becomes too high.
 Cooling
 Compression heats a gas.
 Greater the R, the greater the
increase in temperature.
 Since multi-staging increases
R, it also tends to increase the
final temperature of the gas.
 For safe operation of the
compressor, it is necessary to
cool the compressed gas.
 Intercoolers cool the gas
outside of the compressor.
 Once the gas is cooled, it is
returned to the compressor.
 After coolers cools the gas
leaving the compressor, into
the flow line.
 Drivers
 Turbines : High speed drivers.
 Electric motor : may be directly
coupled to a low speed
centrifugal compressor.
 Step up gears are used to achieve
high speed.
 Electric motor overloading causes overheating of winding which
could damage, or burn out the motor.
 A thermostat may be set in the motor windings to detect overload,
or over heating.
 When the motor exceeds a certain safe operating temperature, a
solenoid switch, tripped by the thermostat, shuts off the current
and the motor stops.
 A circuit breaker that responds to changes in current can be used to
protect motor.
 Governor controls the supply of steam to a steam turbine to keep
the turbine running at a constant speed.
 Over Speed Trip
 Over speed trip is always located in
turbine shaft.
 Weight is held in the shaft by the
tension of the spring.
 If turbine over speeds, the centrifugal
tendency of the weight exceeds the
spring tension and comes out of shaft.
 Weight strikes a trip arm.
 Trip arm is moved and spring closes
the valve which shuts off steam
supply.
 In large turbines, over speed
mechanism causes the oil to drain
which activate the trip interlock on
low oil pressure.
 Pre-Start Checks
 Drain all liquid as it could seriously damage the compressor
when started up.
 Auxiliary lube oil pump is in service and oil flow to all
bearings is normal. Verify it from sight glasses on return lines.
 Check pressure drop across the filter. Oil flows more easily
when it reaches operating temperature.
 Take lubricating and sealing systems in service at least 10 to 20
minutes before the compressor is started.
 To allow the oil to warm-up to operating conditions, the
cooling system is started after the lube system.
 Cooling water of inter coolers is in service.
 Ensure that compressor safety and control devices are healthy.
 To make sure that the rotor rolls freely, it should be turned by
hand, if possible.
 Start up
 Power to accelerate the compressor depends upon how fast
the driver is accelerated.
 In order to prevent burnout, electric motors must be brought
to full speed quickly.
 The heavier the gas load in the compressor, the slower the
driver will reach full speed.
 On startup with electric drivers, suction valve of compressor
is throttled to reduce the gas load and bypass is opened.
 After the machine reaches its speed, suction valve is slowly
opened and the bypass put on automatic.
 For startup, motors must have large power margin over gas load .
 With other type of drivers, starting time is not critical. Power
margin of these drivers over the gas load needs to be small.
 Start up

 It is necessary to prevent gas from flowing back into the

compressor when connected to a pressurized system.
 Compressors in parallel or flowing into a fixed discharge
pressure system have a check valve in discharge line to
prevent backflow.
 During startup of the compressor, this check valve is held
closed by pressure in the discharge line/system.
 As turbine delivers high starting torque, the compressor can
be started under some load when turbine driven.
 Both the suction and discharges valves are open at startup.
 To prevent surge during startup, the vent or bypass is
opened.
 Start up
Turbine Driven Compressor :
 Turbine is started and the
compressor is brought up to
operating speed.
 The point on the graph
where operating speed is
reached is point 2.
 As soon as the compressor is at operating speed, the vent or
bypass should be slowly closed.
 When the vent or bypass is closed, the compressor builds up
sufficient pressure.
 The compressor is now at point 3 or a stable operating point,
and the vent or bypass can be put on automatic control.
 Start up

Motor Driven Compressor :

 Suction valve is normally
throttled and discharge valve
is opened during startup.
 Check valve is held closed
by system pressure.
 Vent or bypass is open.
 When operating speed is attained, the suction valve is slowly
opened and vent or bypass is put on automatic.
 With the suction valve open, compressor rapidly builds
discharge pressure until it opens the check valve and forces
the gas into the discharge line.
 Start up

 Critical Speed is the angular speed at which a rotating shaft

becomes dynamically unstable.
 Many centrifugal compressors have one or more critical
speeds at which vibration is excessive and frequently
dangerous.
 To avoid vibration damage, the compressor must pass
through these critical speeds as rapidly as possible.
 Since proper start up procedure is important to centrifugal
compressor operation, the procedures provided for a
particular compressor installation should be strictly followed.
 Shut Down
 Shutdown procedure depends
upon whether or not the
compressor is operating into a
fixed pressure system.
 If there is no fixed pressure, as
the driver is slowed down,
flow is reduced at a lower and
lower pressure until it stops.
 When a centrifugal compressor is operating with no external
pressure at discharge and driver is shutdown, there is no
danger of surging.
 When a compressor is operating into a fixed pressure system,
as soon as compressor discharge pressure drops below line
pressure, a check valve closes.
 Shut Down

 With the check valve closed, gas cannot flow backward into
the compressor.
 The capacity is immediately reduced to zero.
 At the same time the compressor is slowing during this speed
reduction, the gas trapped at discharge repeatedly brings
compressor into surge.
 To avoid surging, compressors operating against a fixed
discharge pressure should be shut down with the vent or
bypass open.
 The open vent drops the discharge pressure to atmosphere, or
the bypass opens the discharge to suction and equalizes the
pressure. Both devices prevent surging.
 Shut Down

 On most compressors, automatic bypass controls are

regulated by discharge rate, rather than by discharge pressure.
 With a rate control device, when the check valve closes, the
bypass automatically opens.
 When the automatic controls are regulated by discharge
pressure, they do not automatically protect against surging at
shutdown.
 When a pressure control regulator is used, the bypass or vent
should be operated manually at shutdown.
 After the compressor has stopped, the suction and discharge
valves should be closed.
 Shut Down

 To allow the compressor to cool evenly, the auxiliary lube

and seal oil pumps should be allowed to run until the
compressor is cooled.
 If the compressor is water cooled, cooling water should be
circulated until the compressor is cooled.
 When toxic gas is used in the compressor’s system, the
system must be purged.
 If liquids seals are used, the fluid is left circulating and
sealing until after the system is purged.
 Alarm and Interlock System
 Alarm system warns incase any operating parameter
deviates from its alert set value.
 Boardman takes the corrective action.

 Interlock system actuates incase any operating parameter

approaches the trip limit.
 Interlock system brings the plant in “Fail Safe Condition”.
 Trip Securities;
 Lube oil low pressure  Control oil low pressure
 Suction low pressure  High vibration
 Disch. low/high pressure  High thrust
 Knock out vessels low  Condenser high pressure
level  Extraction low/high pressure
 Over speed trip  Steam/Power failure
Thank You
 QUESTIONS
1. Compression ratio is the ratio between abs. discharge pressure
and abs. suction pressure.
2. Centrifugal compressors are used for large heads and capacities.
3. Centrifugal compressors require less maintenance due to simple
construction.
4. Centrifugal force pulls away from the centre of rotation.
5. Impeller adds both pressure and velocity to the gas.
6. In diffuser, larger flow path and no direct action by the impeller
blades causes gas velocity to decrease and its pressure increases.
7. Rapid flow of gas back and forth in compressor is called
surging.
8. Antisurge valves protect the compressor against surging.
9. Horizontal split casing is used for low pressure service.
10. Vertical split casing minimizes the possibility of leaks.
 QUESTIONS

11. Seals are used between shaft & diaphragm and shaft & casing to
prevent leakages.
12. Some seals are ported to force inert gas into labyrinth of the seal.
13. Movement along the axis of the shaft is axial motion.
14. Journal bearing prevents radial motion.
15. Oil helps to prevent friction, or contact between shaft and the pads.
16. Thrust collar rotates with the shaft and thrust shoes prevent axial
motion.
17. When axial thrust is too great for a thrust bearing, a balancing
drum is used to equalize the thrust.
18. Over speed trip is always located in turbine shaft.
19. Interlock system actuates incase any operating parameter
approaches the trip limit.
20. Interlock system brings the plant in “Fail Safe Condition”.
 Stall

 It is opposite to the surging. Incase when discharge vent opens

suddenly or there is heavy leakage in discharge line, the flow thru
compressor will increase very high. At that time flow thru impeller
eye will also be very high. Impeller eye is designed for a certain flow
while flow requirement at that time increases above that limit. This
causes imbalance of the rotor and it vibrates.
 This usually happens in a low flow stage as it approaches the surge.
Stall is caused by the destabilization of the impeller or diffuser flow
or by unsteady interaction between the impeller and diffuser
 Defined as the (aerodynamic stall) or the break-away of the flow
from the suction side of the blades.
 A multi-staged compressor may operate safely with one or more
stages stalled and the rest of the stages unstalled but performance is
not optimum due to higher losses when the stall is formed.
 Absolute Velocity “C”

 Absolute Velocity of Gas C

 Its two Components are;

 A) Relative inlet velocity W

 ( Parallel to blade)

 B) Local Blade Velocity U

 ( Perpendicular to Impeller Radius )
 The Combination of absolute, relative and local
blade velocities is known as velocity triangle of gas
Blade Velocity
 Velocity Triangle

 Tangential Velocity CU
 The component of absolute velocity C, with the
same direction as blade velocity
 Momentum
 = Radius of Impeller * Tangential Velocity
 Work Performed
 Change in momentum from inlet to discharge of
impeller, multiplied by the angular velocity,
represents the work performed by impeller blade on
unit mass
Velocity Triangle
Blade Angle
Performance Curve
Performance Curve
Operating Area
Operating Condition
Operating Condition
Stability Range and Pressure Raise to Surge
 Stability Range and Pressure Raise to Surge

 Stability Range
 The Volume flow inlet variation that occurs
between the operating point and surge limit line at
constant speed

 Pressure Raise to Surge

 The variation of discharge pressure between the
operating point and the surge limit line at constant
speed
Turndown Range
 Turndown Range

 Turndown Range
 The variation in inlet volume flow that occurs
between the operating point and the surge limit line
at the same discharge pressure
Performance Curve Application
 Fan laws

 With impeller diameter D held constant:

 B. Q1/Q2=N1/N2
 C. H1/H2=(N1/N2)2
 D. BHP1/BHP2=(N1/N2)2
Q = capacity, cfm H = total head, ft ,Bhp = brake
horsepower, N = compressor speed, r/min
 With speed N held constant:
 E. Q1/Q2=D1/D2
 F. H1/H2=(D1/D2)2
 G. BHP1/BHP2=(D1/D2)2
Impeller Diameter using inlet volume
Types of Compressors
 Critical Speed
 The angular speed at which a rotating shaft becomes dynamically
unstable with large lateral amplitudes, due to resonance with the natural
frequencies of lateral vibration of the shaft.
 Critical Speed
 The critical speed is different for every rotating assembly, be it a
single item or a composite like the rotor of a fan or of a multi-stage
centrifugal compressor. It has to do with dynamic balance and
vibration. Nothing is ever perfectly balanced, but there are
acceptable imbalances based on published operating experience as
well as on theory. A rotor is put on a test stand and vibration
monitors placed to measure vibration amplitude and vibration
velocity as the rotor is run up thru a pre-determined RPM range
based on what its service RPM will be. If a vibration harmonic is
measured, that is a sudden peak in amplitude at a particular RPM,
that RPM is the first critical speed. Sometimes there are more than
one. That speed is to be avoided and if it is close to the operating
RPM some modification in needed to rebalance the rotor.
Sometimes the first critical is a bit below the operating speed. In
that case the corrected rotor is accelerated through that speed
rapidly to minimize any ill effects.
Most critical speeds associated with dynamic balance will occur
long before any tip speed sonic speed effects occur.
 State

Matter can be in solid, liquid, vapor or gaseous phase.

Key Terms - Enthalpy
State of working Fluid
 Gas and Vapor

 Gas is a state of matter above its Critical Condition and

can’t be liquefy by applying pressure.
 A substance in gaseous form below its Critical Condition.
 All gases can be liquefied under specific temperature and
pressure conditions therefore they can also be called as
vapor.
 CRITICAL CONDITIONS

 There is one temperature above which a gas will

not liquefy with pressure increase is critical
temperature.
 The pressure require to compress and condense a
gas at this critical temperature is critical pressure.
 Critical Condition of Water.
 Tcr = 374.14°C
 Pcr = 220.48 bar, 3206 lb/inch2
 Vcr = 0.003155 m3/kg
Density of Gases
Densities of Common Elements & Compounds

Substance Density (grams per ml)

Hydrogen gas 0.000089
Helium gas 0.00018
Air 0.00128
Carbon Dioxide 0.001977
Water 1.00
 GAS LAWS

 Boyle’s Law
 Charles’ Law
 Amonton’s Law
 Dalton’s law
 Amagat’s Law
 Avogadro’s Law
 Ideal Gas Equation
 Boyle’s Law
 In 1662 Robert Boyle (1627-91) an English man,
observed during his experiment with a vacuum
chamber that the pressure is inversely proportional
to their volume at constant temperature.
P  1/V
PV = Constant
 Charles Law
and Gay – Lussae Law
 In 1810 J.A.C. Charles and J. Gay – Lussac,
Frenchman, experimentally determined that at low
pressure the volume of a gas is proportional to its
temperature.
V / T = Constant
 Amonton’s Law

At constant volume, the pressure of an ideal gas

varies directly with absolute temperature

P2/P1= T2/T1 V= constant

 Dalton’s law

 Total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to

the sum of partial pressure of the constituent gases
Partial pressure is the pressure each gas will exert if
it alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the
mixture temperature
P=pa+pb+pc+pd+…..

 But it is experimentally observed that normally the

pressure is higher than the calculated pressure.
However the error is minimum
 Amagat’s Law

 Total volume of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to

the sum of partial volume of the constituent gases
Partial volume is the volume each gas will occupy
if it alone is under same pressure temperature
condition of mixture
V=va+vb+vc+vd+…..
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

4. Pressure Drops in Air Filter

• Install filter in cool location or draw air
from cool location
• Keep pressure drop across intake air
filter to a minimum
Every 250 mm WC pressure drop = 2%
higher energy consumption

© UNEP 2006
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

5. Use Inter and After Coolers

• Inlet air temperature rises at each stage of
multi-stage machine
• Inter coolers: heat exchangers that
remove heat between stages
• After coolers: reduce air temperature after
final stage
• Use water at lower temperature: reduce
power
© UNEP 2006
 COMPRESSOR

INTERMITTENT FLOW CONTINOUS FLOW

POSTIVE DISPLACEMNT DYNAMIC EJECTOR

ROTARY RECIPROCATING RADIAL MIXED AXIAL

FLOW FLOW FLOW

SLIDING VANE MECHANICAL

LIQUID PISTON PISTON CENTRIFUGAL MIXED FLOW AXIAL
HELICAL LOBE
STRIEGHT LOBE
Types of Compressors

Two Basic Compressor Types

Compressors

Positive
Dynamic
displacement

Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

© UNEP 2006
 Types of compressor

 Positive Displacement
 Units are those in which successive volumes of gas are
confined within a closed space and elevated to a higher
pressure.
 Dynamic compressors
 Dynamic compressors are rotary continuous flow
machines in which the rapidly rotating element through
the element, converting the velocity head into pressure.
This occurs partially in the rotating element and partially
in stationary diffusers or blades.
 Axial Compressor
 A compressor that moves gas
parallel to the axis of its shaft.
 Rotor blades do work on the gas.
 Stator blades partially convert
velocity into pressure.
 Further pressure increase is caused
by forcing the gas into a smaller
volume.
 Flow of gas in an axial compressor
is in a some what straight line of
flow.
 Main Components of
Centrifugal Compressor
Impeller
The part of centrifugal compressor that moves the gas is
the impeller. As the impeller rotates, it moves the gas
toward the outer rim of the impeller and its velocity
increases.
Diffuser
As the gas leaves impeller, it flows into a passage-way
called the diffuser. The diffuser being larger in volume, the
velocity of gas decreases and its pressure increases.
Volute
Gas passes from diffuser into the volute. In the volute, the
conversion from velocity to pressure continues.
Working Principle

The working principle is based

upon the conversion of dynamic
energy into static energy, i.e.,
from velocity into pressure. The
specific compression energy
transmitted to the gas by the
impeller is called "head." The
discharge pressure of a turbo
compressor, which is affected
by gas inlet conditions, is a
function of head.
 Contents
 Pre-startup operation
 Startup operation
 Shutdown operation
 Emergency shutdown operation
 Effect of molecular weights on compressor performance
 Compressor/turbine critical speed and compressor surging
 Interlock and trip logic
 Plant alert and monitor:
 surging
 High vibration
 High bearing temperature
 Air lock in filter
 Off Design Operations
 Effect of molecular weight variation
 Suction temperature variation
 Suction pressure variation
 Compressor internal leakage
 Fouling effect
 Lube Oil System
 Description of components
 Electrical instruments-typical loops
 Jacking oil system (if applicable)
 Alarm and shut-down
 Routine check during normal operation
 Identifying malfunctions & faults
 Sealing System
 Scope of the system
 Description of Components
 Electrical instruments-typical loops
 Alarm and shut-down
 Seal operation
 Routine check during normal operation
 Identifying malfunctions & faults
Choke
What word strikes fear in
the heart of centrifugal
compressor operators?

SURGE!
 What is Compressor Surge?

 Compressor surge is an unstable flow pattern in a

compressor where the total flow across the airfoil
alternately stops, flows backwards, and then flows
forward.

 The surge flow has been defined by some as the

flow at which the head flow curve is perfectly flat
and below which the head actually decrease.
Pressure and Flow Variations
During Surging
Figure Inception of surge
Anti Surge Loop
Surge
Stall
 Stall
 Diffusers in centrifugal compressors convert kinetic energy
in the high-velocity flow exiting a compressor impeller into
pressure. However, as flow rate into a diffuser decreases and
pressure rise increases, the flow angle entering the diffuser
becomes smaller, resulting in a separated flow structure
known as rotating stall. Diffuser stall involves three-
dimensional unstable flow structures with pressure
modulations in space and time, which lead to piping
pulsation and rotor vibration. This poorly understood
phenomenon represents a significant limitation, the
consequences of which have not been predictable, but which
must be considered in applying centrifugal compressors for
oil and gas production and processing.
Off – Design Condition
Off – Design Condition: Molecular Weight
Off – Design Condition: Suction Pressure
Off – Design Condition: Suction Temperature
Efficiency
 Surging

The smaller the angle the

longer is the flow path of the
gas between impeller tip and
the diffuser outer diameter.
when the path becomes long
enough that flow momentum
is dissipated by the friction to
the point where pressure
gained by diffusion causes a
reversal of flow surge results.
 CONDITION MONITORING

 An increase in interstage temperature can indicate

a damaged labyrinth seal with excessive tip
clearances at the impeller inlet.
 In the case an excessive amount of gas recalculates
back through the defective seal to the impeller
inlet, raising the inlet and discharge temperature of
that stage.
 The problem is usually accompanied by a
reduction of volume flow.
 CONDITION MONITORING

 For assessing the mechanical condition of the

rotating elements and the bearings, vibration and
shaft-position monitoring provide the best tools.
 Excessive vibration causes high dynamic loading
of the journal bearings, and will lead to seal rubs
that open up the seal clearances.
 Vibrations caused by seal rubs can be detected by
the usual vibration monitoring. The condition of
the internal labyrinth seals can be derived from
the thermodynamic operating data.
 CONDITION MONITORING
 Deterioration of shaft oil seals is indicated by an increasing seal-oil
flow rate through the seals.

 Leakage through the inner seal rings can be observed visually if the
drain lines, or drain traps are so equipped.

 Usually the flow through the inner oil seal is drained into a separate
oil tank ( “sour oil” tank) where the amount can be measured.
 VIBRATION MONITORING

 On high-speed turbo compressors, which have

comparatively light rotors and heavy casings, information
on rotor vibration is obtained with proximity vibration
probes.
 These are non-contacting devices that sense the distance
between probe tip and shaft surface, and convert it into an
equivalent electrical signal.
 Due to the physical configuration and the mounting of a
compressor, the vibration responses in the horizontal and
vertical directions are different.
 VIBRATION MONITORING

 Ideally, vibration should be measured in both the horizontal

and vertical directions.
 However, since bearing housings are usually split
horizontally, probe mounting is difficult.
 The accepted way of probe arrangement is 45 deg off the
vertical centerline to both sides.
 The monitor displays indicate the amplitude of unfiltered
overall vibration.
 As long as the vibration amplitudes are within limits and do
not change, the compressor train can be considered to be in
good condition.
 VIBRATION MONITORING

 However, if changes of vibration of occur during later

operation, they are always signs that the mechanical
condition of the compressor is deteriorating.
 The dynamic behavior of the rotor can be evaluated by a
detailed analysis of the vibratory motion.
 Vibration monitors are therefore provided with connections
for diagnostic equipment, such as oscilloscopes, frequency
analyzers, and real-time analyzers.
 VIBRATION MONITORING

 During shop test of a compressor, extensive vibration

measurements are carried out and recorded.
 In order to identify problems, it is necessary to compare
deviation and trends of vibration against shop-test
references. Thus shop tests provide the “vibration signature”
for later reference.
 It is also a good policy to perform vibration analyses after
original commissioning of the compressor and after
turnaround to establish reference records.
 VIBRATION MONITORING

 If the vibration characteristics change during later

operation, analyses can be performed again, and the
result compared with the earlier records to
recognize trends, and to identify problems.

 The reason for putting so much emphasis on

vibration is a measure of the dynamic forces of the
rotor.
 VIBRATION MONITORING
 Excessive dynamic forces can lead to a number of problems,
including bearing damage (due to excessive dynamic loading),
labyrinth seal wear (because of excessive rotor deflection), wear of
couplings, bridging of clearance gap between rotor blades and
stator on axial compressors, and gear damage on integrally geared
units.
 Vibration analysis helps to identify the cause of the vibration,
because certain malfunctions are tied to particular vibration
frequencies. In many cases, however, prediction the cause of
vibration is quite complex, and requires the assistance of expert
engineers.
 PERFORMANCE BASICS

 There is a minimum flow for each compressor below which operation

become unstable. This instability is known as surge. The performance
range is limited toward smaller volume-flow by the surge limit, and
toward larger volume-flow by the choke limit, beyond which the flow
cannot be increased.
 Most critical is the surge limit, because below this point, the pressure
developed by the compressor is not sufficient to overcome the system
pressure behind the compressor.
 PERFORMANCE BASICS

This results in periodic back flow through the compressor,

which is accompanied by a symptomatic noise known as
“surging”. Operation of the compressor in this unstable
range can cause mechanical damage. For this reason,
compressors are usually equipped with control systems to
prevent surging. Specified set of operating conditions that
correspond to a point on the performance curve. At this
“design point” the compressor has its best efficiency.
 GETTING THE DATA

To increase operating reliable and prevent

accidental shutdowns, instrument “voting” systems
are often employed. These systems have two or
three identical probes installed at the same location
to ensure that shutdowns are initiated only if, for
instance, both or two out of three probes sense
shutdown conditions.
 OPERATION MONITORING

The purpose of monitoring compressor operation is to make

sure that all functions are “normal”. Monitoring thus
consists of acquisition of current operating data, and
periodic comparison of current data with earlier
performance data.

Meaningful monitoring requires the following operating

data to be observed and recorded.
 Thermodynamic condition

1. Suction and discharge temperatures of each stage.

2. Volume flow
3. Density
4. Operating speed
5. Power consumption
a. For electric motor drive: voltage, current, or wattage.
b. For steam and gas turbines: inlet and outlet conditions,
steam flow or fuel flow.
6. Flow rate, inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water (to
check cooler performance)
 ANTISURGE CONTROL

The stable operating range of a turbo compressor is

determined by its surge limit, which defines the
minimum flow requirement. Because the volume
flow in the case of low process demand, or process
malfunctioning can drop below the minimum flow
requirement, compressor installations are
commonly protected by antisurge control systems.
 ANTISURGE CONTROL
 If the flow reaches a point close to the surge limit
(surge control line), part of the flow is re-circulated
through a bypass valve to maintain minimum flow
through the compressor.
 The by pass valve is automatically adjusted by a
control system sensing compressor flow and pressure
to recycle the difference between process demand and
minimum compressor flow. (On air compressors, the
difference is blown off to atmosphere.)
.
 ANTISURGE CONTROL
 Keeping the compressor out of surge is an important operating
requirement, not only from the standpoint of maintaining stable
process flow, but also for mechanical reasons.
 The sudden flow reversals during surging cause sudden periodic
unloading and loading of the compressor, which can lead to
thrust-bearing damage and overheating.
 Repeated heavy surging can also be detrimental to the driver and
to the couplings.
 Performance Features

 As compared to positive displacement compressors,

dynamic compressors;
 Have constant head at any operating point.

 Requires less maintenance due to simple construction.

 Take more horsepower for compression and thus have a

lower efficiency.
 Have lower first costs and lower maintenance costs.

 More economic when large volume of gas is handled.

 Axial compressors are used for relatively low heads and

high capacities.
 Centrifugal compressors are used for large heads and
capacities.
 SURGING

 Generated head will increase with increase in speed.

 On a constant speed compressor with a fixed suction
pressure, an increase in discharge pressure always causes a
decrease in capacity and an increase in compression ratio.
 Increasing the speed and capacity will also increase BHP
required for compression.
 Compressor must be operated at lower speed if less
volume of gas is required.
SURGING
Compressor Casing
Reciprocating Compressor
Axial Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor