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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x  x  y  z 0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
 y  z 0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x

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Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,
the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

• With these restrictions:

 x  y  z
 x   
E E E
 x  y  z
 y   
E E E
 x  y 
 z    z
E E E

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Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
    
e 1  1   x 1   y 1   z  1  1   x   y   z 
 x   y   z
1  2

E

 x  y  z 
dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)

• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

31  2  p
e  p 
E k
E
k bulk modulus
31  2 

• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
0    12

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Shearing Strain

• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will

deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
 xy  f  xy 

• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar to

Fig. 2-46
the previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
 xy G  xy  yz G  yz  zx G  zx

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear

modulus.

Fig. 2-47

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Example 2.10
SOLUTION:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 630 MPa is • Use the definition of shearing stress to
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates. find the force P.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 1.0 mm. under the
action of the force, determine a) the
average shearing strain in the material,
and b) the force P exerted on the plate.

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

• Determine the average angular deformation

or shearing strain of the block.
1 mm
xy tan xy  xy 0.020 rad
50 mm

• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.

 xy Gxy 630MPa 0.020 rad  12.6MPa

• Use the definition of shearing stress to

find the force P.
P  xy A 12.6 106 Pa 0.2m 0.062m  156.2 103 N

P 156.2 kN

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Relation Among E, and G

• An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
• Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
E
1  
2G

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Sample Problem 2.5

A circle of diameter d = 225 mm is scribed on

an unstressed aluminum plate of thickness t =
18 mm. Forces acting in the plane of the plate
later cause normal stresses x = 84 MPa and
z = 140 MPa.
For E = 70 GPa and  = 1/3, determine the
change in:
a) the length of diameter AB,
b) the length of diameter CD,
c) the thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

SOLUTION:
• Apply the generalized Hooke’s Law • Evaluate the deformation components.
to find the three components of
 B A  x d  0.533 10  3 mm/mm225mm
normal strain.
 B A 0.12mm
x  y  z
 x   
E E E  C D  z d  1.600 10  3 mm/mm225mm
1  1 
 84 MPa   0  
140 MPa   C D 0.36mm
70 10 MPa 
3
3 
0.533 10  3 mm/mm  t  y t  1.067 10  3 mm/mm18mm 
 x  y  z
 y     t  0.0192mm
E E E
 1.067 10  3 mm/mm
 x  y z • Find the change in volume
 z   
E E E
1.600 10  3 mm/mm e  x   y   z 1.067 10  3 mm 3 /mm 3
V eV 1.067 10  3 380 380 18mm 3

V 2733mm3

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed
from lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or
polymers embedded in a resin matrix.

• Normal stresses and strains are related by Hooke’s

Law but with directionally dependent moduli of
elasticity,
 y 
Ex  x Ey  Ez  z
x y z

• Transverse contractions are related by directionally

dependent values of Poisson’s ratio, e.g.,
y 
 xy   xz  z
x x

• Materials with directionally dependent mechanical

properties are anisotropic.

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.

• Concentrated loads result in large

stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.

• Stress and strain distributions

become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.

• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Stress Concentration: Hole

(a) Flat bars with holes

Discontinuities of cross section may result in  max

K
high localized or concentrated stresses.  ave

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Stress Concentration: Fillet

(b) Flat bars with fillets

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Example 2.12

SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
Determine the largest axial load P
• Find the allowable average normal
that can be safely supported by a
flat steel bar consisting of two stress using the material allowable
portions, both 10 mm thick, and normal stress and the stress
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide, concentration factor.
connected by fillets of radius r = 8 • Apply the definition of normal stress
mm. Assume an allowable normal to find the allowable load.
stress of 165 MPa.

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

• Determine the geometric ratios and

find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
 1.50  0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K 1.82

• Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
 165 MPa
 ave  max  90.7 MPa
K 1.82

(b) Flat bars with fillets • Apply the definition of normal stress
to find the allowable load.
P  A ave 40 mm 10 mm 90.7 MPa 

36.3 103 N
P 36.3 kN

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Elastoplastic Materials
• Previous analyses based on assumption of
linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.,
stresses below the yield stress
• Assumption is good for brittle material
which rupture without yielding
• If the yield stress of ductile materials is
exceeded, then plastic deformations occur
• Analysis of plastic deformations is
simplified by assuming an idealized
elastoplastic material
• Deformations of an elastoplastic material
are divided into elastic and plastic ranges
• Permanent deformations result from
loading beyond the yield stress

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Plastic Deformations

 A • Elastic deformation while maximum

P  ave A  max
K stress is less than yield stress

• Maximum stress is equal to the yield

Y A
PY  stress at the maximum elastic
K
loading

• At loadings above the maximum

elastic load, a region of plastic
deformations develop near the hole
• As the loading increases, the plastic
PU  Y A region expands until the section is at
 K PY a uniform stress equal to the yield
stress

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Residual Stresses

• When a single structural element is loaded uniformly

beyond its yield stress and then unloaded, it is
permanently deformed but all stresses disappear. This is
not the general result.
• Residual stresses will remain in a structure after
loading and unloading if
- only part of the structure undergoes plastic
deformation
- different parts of the structure undergo different
plastic deformations
• Residual stresses also result from the uneven heating or
cooling of structures or structural elements

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

A cylindrical rod is placed inside a

tube of the same length. The ends of
the rod and tube are attached to a rigid
support on one side and a rigid plate on
the other. The load on the rod-tube
assembly is increased from zero to 25
kN and decreased back to zero.
a) draw a load-deflection diagram
for the rod-tube assembly
b) determine the maximum
elongation
c) determine the permanent set
d) calculate the residual stresses in
the rod and tube.

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

a) Draw a load-deflection diagram for the rod-tube
assembly

Pr Y  r Y Ar 250 106 Pa 48 10 6 m 2 12 kN

 r Y 250 106 Pa
δr Y  r Y L  L 9
750 mm
Er 210 10 Pa
0.89mm

Pt Y  t Y At 310 106 Pa 62 10-6 m 2 19.2 kN

 t Y 310 106 Pa
δt Y  t Y L  L 9
 750 mm 
Et 105 10 Pa
2.21mm

P  Pr  Pt
  r  t

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

b,c) determine the maximum elongation and permanent set

Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16
• At a load of P = 25 kN, the rod has reached the plastic range
while the tube is still in the elastic range
Pr Pr Y 12 kN
Pt P  Pr 25  12 kN 13 kN
Pt 13 kN
t   210 MPa
At 62 10-6 m 2
t 210 106 Pa
 max  t 1.5mm
 t  t L  L  9
750 mm
Et 105 10 Pa

• The rod-tube assembly unloads along a line parallel to 0Yr

19.2 kN
m 21.6 kN mm slope
0.89mm
P 25 kN
   max   1.16mm
m 21.6 kN mm
 p  max    1.5  1.16 mm  p 0.34mm

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Fifth Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek

Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

• Calculate the residual stresses in the rod and tube.

Calculate the reverse stresses in the rod and tube caused

by unloading and add them to the maximum stresses.

  1.16mm
   1.55 10  3 mm mm
L 750 mm

 r  Er  1.55 10  3 210 GPa   325.5 MPa

 t  Et  1.55 10  3 105 Gpa   162.75 MPa

 residual ,r  r   r 250  325.5MPa  75.5 MPa

 residual ,t  t   t 210  162.75MPa 47.25 MPa

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