Qualitative

Research Methods
in Social Work
Concept of social Field
The concept of a social field encompasses a dynamic and subjective space where individuals
engage in various interactions, influenced by needs, attitudes, sentiments, emotions,
expectations, and perceptions. This field provides a unique interpretation of the world, shaping
reality through individual perspectives. Despite this individuality, people navigate and relate to
separate fields in their daily lives.
In the course of a day, individuals seamlessly transition between different social fields. They
interact with family during breakfast, contribute to the bustling commuter crowd, share coffee
moments with co-workers, and may unite with fellow enthusiasts to support a favorite football
team. These interactions reflect the multifaceted nature of social fields, demonstrating how
individuals play roles in diverse and separate contexts.
Moreover, individuals are members of overlapping or coexisting fields, each with its own
substance, meaning, and force. For instance, purchasing lunch involves participating in the market
economy, while attitudes and beliefs align individuals with cultural fields. Duties and behavior
place individuals within social fields, and citizenship ties them to the international arena. These
fields are not abstract; rather, they are tangible forces shaping experiences and perceptions.
An illustrative example is the sociopsychological field associated with team
competition. Whether watching a basketball championship or participating in
a crowd, individuals become integrated emotionally and cognitively with
others. The shared meanings and values of the event create a charged
atmosphere, with forces that propel individuals in a specific direction.
Remaining detached requires a concentrated act of will, highlighting the
power embedded in the field.
The family serves as another powerful sociological field. Regardless of its
structure, be it extended or nuclear, a family is more than the sum of its
members and possessions. It represents a unique configuration of shared
expectations, norms, meanings, and values—a common perspective on the
world. It functions as a causal-functional unity, aligning and maintaining the
rights, duties, privileges, and obligations of its members. The family
exemplifies the depth and complexity of social fields, illustrating how they
shape and influence human interactions and relationships.
 Role of Researcher(Observer)
There are four roles in field observation:
• Complete observer
• Observer as a participant,
• Participant as an observer,
• Complete participant
The complete observer role allows noticing every aspect of
interaction that occurs within the group, therefore allowing
gathering data on patterns and behavioral peculiarities.
However, it prevents the observer from participating, which
eliminates the possibility to create various situations to test
gathered data.
• The role of the observer as a participant allows for
interaction with the group. The weakness, then, is the fact
that the group’s members know that there is an observer,
which potentially limits their willingness to behave as
usual.
• Participant as an observer is more of a member of the
group than researcher so that other participants may act
more like usual. Nevertheless, participants still know who
the researcher is, so there are still certain limitations.
• Complete participant achieves full integration, which
allows for less data contamination. Although this role
performs correctly regarding information gathering,
participants may find it unacceptable to research them like
this
Relations of Participants
• Emic perspectives involve descriptions of behaviors and beliefs in
terms that are meaningful to the individuals belonging to a
specific culture. This approach aims to uncover how people
perceive, categorize, and explain their culture and experiences. To
gain emic perspectives, ethnographers engage in direct
conversations with people, observe their actions, and participate
in their daily activities.
• This method is crucial for obtaining an in-depth understanding of
a culture from the insider's point of view, allowing anthropologists
to grasp the nuances of local meanings and interpretations. Emic
perspectives help prevent cultural bias by avoiding the imposition
of the observer's cultural beliefs onto the studied community.
• Etic perspectives involve explanations for behavior made by an
outside observer, often the anthropologist, in ways that are
meaningful to the observer.
• These descriptions typically arise from conversations within the
anthropological community and are informed by scientific,
historical, political, economic studies, and other forms of research.
• The etic approach acknowledges that members of a culture may
not view their own behaviors as noteworthy or unusual, as they
may consider them normal and "natural." This perspective allows
anthropologists to bring an analytical and comparative framework
to their observations, contributing to a broader understanding of
human behavior across cultures.
 Example
In all cultures ingroup members (family, tribe, co-workers, co-
religionists) are treated better than outgroup members
(enemies, strangers, outsiders). That is an etic.
Consider the amae pattern found in japan (doi, 1986). Japanese
often presume that they may depend on others, the way a child
depends on a parent. Mutual dependence is an emic aspect of
that culture.
Which is which?
Investigate the exhibition of depression in Hopi Indians.
Investigate if parent-child attachment is a culturally universal
phenomenon.
Sample Size
Samples for qualitative investigations tend to be small. How to understand sample size?
Data Saturation:
The concept of data saturation is significant. It refers to the point in the study
where new information no longer adds substantial insights, and thematic
saturation is reached. At this stage, researchers may determine that additional
participants are unlikely to contribute significantly to the emerging themes.
Study Progression:
The number of required subjects becomes apparent as the study progresses.
As new categories, themes, or explanations stop emerging from the data,
researchers may reach a point of saturation.
Complexity of the Study:
For simple questions or very detailed studies, a small sample size (even in
single figures) might be sufficient. However, for complex questions, larger
samples and a variety of sampling techniques may be necessary.
Sampling Methods in
Qualitative Research
(Source: Martin N Marshall, Oxford University Press)
Convenience Sample:
• Description: This technique involves selecting the most accessible
subjects for the study. It is the least rigorous method, as it is the least
time, effort, and cost-intensive for the researcher.
• Advantages: Cost-effective and quick.
• Disadvantages: May result in poor-quality data and lacks intellectual
credibility.
• Note: While convenience sampling is common in many qualitative
studies, a more thoughtful approach to sample selection is often
recommended.
. Judgment Sample (Purposeful
Sample):
• Description: In this technique, the researcher actively selects subjects based
on their judgment and expertise to answer the research question. It involves
developing a framework of variables that might influence an individual's
contribution.
• Advantages: More intellectual strategy compared to convenience sampling.
• Disadvantages: Still relies on the researcher's judgment and may not be
entirely representative.
• Variations: The sample may be stratified based on known public attitudes
or beliefs. It can include a maximum variation sample, deviant sample,
critical case sample, or key informant sample. The snowball sample involves
subjects recommending potential candidates for the study.
Theoretical Sample:
Description: This technique is theory-driven and involves an iterative
process. It necessitates building interpretative theories from emerging
data and selecting a new sample to further examine and elaborate on
these theories.
• Advantages: Principal strategy for the grounded theoretical approach,
contributing to the development of theories from the data.
• Note: Theoretical sampling is used in varying degrees in most
qualitative investigations requiring interpretation.
Selection of Informants
• The selection of informants in a qualitative study is determined
entirely by the reviewer,
• It is called purposive sampling,
• Purposeful Sampling: choosing information-rich cases based on the
strategy and objectives set by the reviewer whose numbers depend
on the objective and learning resources.
Qualitative Research
Methods
In-depth Interview
An in-depth interview is a qualitative research technique that allows person to
person discussion.
It can lead to increased insight into people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior on
important issues.
This type of interview is often unstructured and therefore permits the interviewer
to encourage an informant (respondent) to talk at length about the topic of
interest.
In-depth interviews offer the opportunity to capture rich, descriptive data about
people's behaviors, attitudes and perceptions, and unfolding complex processes.
The in-depth interview uses a flexible interview approach. It aims to ask questions
to explain the reasons underlying a problem or practice in a target group.
Key Informant Interview
• Key informant interviews(KII) are qualitative in- depth interviews with
people who know what is going on in the community.
• These experts can provide insight on the nature of problems and
proffer solutions.
• The two techniques used to conduct KII:
• Telephone Interviews
• Face-to-Face Interviews
Planning the key informant
interviews
• Gather and review existing data
• Determine what information is needed
• Determine target population and brainstorm about possible key informants
• Choose key informants
• Choose type of interview
• Develop an interview tool
• Determine documentation method
• Select designated interviewer(s)
• Conduct key informant interviews
• Compile and organize key informant interview data
Choose Key Informants
• key informants must have first-hand knowledge about problems you
are trying to investigate. Identify and create a list of potential key
informants
• Get a diverse set of representatives with different backgrounds and
from different groups or sectors.
• This diversity provides a broad range of perspectives minimises bias.
• The number of people you interview depends on your data needs,
available time, and resources. Typically, 15-25 interviews are the most
you need.
Biographical Research
• "The intent of biographical research in its various guises is to collect and
interpret the lives of others as part of human understanding" (Roberts 2002:15)
• Emphasises the importance of subjective experience within historical & social
contexts
• Illuminates processes by which individuals negotiate both their identities and
their interpretation/engagement with norms
• Facilitates the researcher in "captur[ing], prob[ing], and render[ing]
understandable problematic experience". For this "[i]t is necessary to get as
close to actual experience as possible". (Denzin 1989: 69)
• Recognises that "what we capture [in stories] is a mediation between the
personal voice and wider cultural imperatives" (Goodson & Sikes 2001)
Approaches to Biographical
Research
Two Broad Approaches (Denzin 1989):
1) Traditional
• Life Histories (Chicago School)
Objective Natural History Approach
Accept norms related to validity, reliability, truth, falsity and generalizability
2) Interpretive
• Objective Hermeneutics (Schutze 1983; Oevermann 1979)
Rejects traditional norms of evaluation
Regards biographical materials from within a literary, fictional framework
Life History Approach
• Pioneered by anthropologists and later taken up by sociologists in the
1930s. It became famous for studying the polish peasants in Europe and
America.
• A life history is essentially telling or recounting of a string of events, with
personal narratives is the unfolding history of one person's or group's
experiences.
• Today it has been employed in many disciplines like clinical psy,
economics, Education, Psychology etc
• The method involves especially telling stories and more info can be
obtained from historical data, news letters, diaries, letters, school
records, legal papers and sometime third party views as well.
Characteristics
• Recognises that the different parts of people's lives are
interconnected
• Encompasses a range of strategies for collecting data
• Interviews
• Group Work
• Journals, diaries, other autobiographical writings
• Documents
• Can be combined with other research methods
Preparation for the Interview
1) Access negotiation
2) Informed Consent (Written, verbal) 3) Interview Schedule
4) Supplementary Aids (i.e. photographs)
5) Mechanism for feedback
a. Copy of transcript
b. Report
c. Life Story Book
6) Be emotionally prepared to actively listen
Parts of the Interview Guide
• Based around your area of research but generally include topics such as:
• INITIAL QUESTION
• EARLY LIFE HISTORY & FAMILY OF ORIGIN
• EDUCATION
• COMMUNITY AND CLASS
• EMPLOYMENT
• LEISURE/COURTING
• MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN
• LATER LIFE
• TURNING POINTS
Genogram
• The genogram is a visual, symbolic representation of multiple
generations of a family, structured in much the same way as a family
tree.
• Genograms emerged within systemic family therapy as an assessment
and intervention tool but, in their ability to generate rich data, they
are gaining traction as a research tool.
• In research, genograms have been used to study a diverse range of
intergenerational aspects
Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
• A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research
method and data collection technique in which a
selected group of people discusses a given topic or
issue in-depth, facilitated by a professional, external
moderator.
• FGDs are a good way to gather in-depth information about a
community's thoughts and opinions on a topic. The course of the
discussion is usually planned in advance and most moderators rely on
an outline, or guide, to ensure that all topics of interest are covered.
• One can collect quantitative data in a focus group setting in support of
a number of different quantitative research objectives
Methods of FGD
• Focus groups typically have these features:
• Four to ten participants meeting for up to two hours
• A facilitator or facilitators to guide discussion using open-
ended questions
• An emphasis on the group talking among itself rather than to
the facilitator
• Discussion is recorded and then transcribed for analysis by
researchers
• Researchers conduct several individual focus group meetings
to produce a series. The number of focus groups in the series
depends on the study’s aim, methods and resources.
NOTE TAKING AND RECORDING
OBSERVATIONS
• Field notes are an integral part of many types of research, especially within
the realm of qualitative inquiry. Essentially, field notes are the researcher's
written record of observations made, experiences had, and insights gleaned
while in the field conducting research.
• Field notes should capture a broad array of information, including what was
seen, heard, felt, and thought during the course of research. In essence, they
are a record of your sensory and intellectual experiences in the field.
• The primary purpose of a field note is to create a comprehensive and
nuanced record of the research setting and the phenomena being
investigated. Field notes serve as the raw material for analysis, allowing
researchers to revisit their observations, reflect upon them, and derive
meaningful insights and interpretations.
Elements Of Comprehensive
Field Note
1. Headnotes: These include the date, time, location, and other context-
setting details of the observation period.
2. Descriptive observations: A detailed description of the physical setting,
the participants, activities, and conversations.
3. Reflective notes: Personal reflections that reveal thoughts, ideas,
concerns, or preliminary analysis about what is being observed.
4. Sketches and diagrams: Visual representations can be useful for
depicting spatial relationships, layouts, or intricate details of observed
objects.
5. Analytical insights: Early propositions or interpretations based on what
is being observed.
6. Methodological notes: Information about any changes in research
plans, the rationale for decisions, and lessons learned for future fieldwork.