CHAPTER 5

DATA COLLECTION
BUSINESS Research
 CHAPTER: 1 BUSINESS
RESEARCH
Research is nothing but search for knowledge or search for
unknown things. The word research composed of two words, re and
search.
Re- Once more or back with or return to previous state. Search- Look
through or go over thoroughly to look something or examine to find
anything concealed.
So research is the search again and again for new knowledge.
In other words, research is an organized and systematic way of
finding answers to questions. It is an art of scientific investigation.
Some people consider research as a movement i.e. a movement from
 Definition of Research
According to Robert Ross, “research is essentially an investigation, a recording
and an analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining
knowledge.” It
can generally be defined as a systematic method of finding
solutions
to problems.
According to Clifford Woody, “research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting,
organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine
Features of Research

1. It involves collection of new data from primary or secondary

sources.
2. The collected data is used for a new purpose.
3. Expertise is required in research. i.e. skill is required to
enquire and gather
data and to understand and analyze data.
4. It should be carefully recorded and reported.
5. Patience is required for conducting research.
Features of Research

6. It means the discovery of new knowledge.

7. It is essentially an investigation
8. It is related with the solution of a problem.
9. It is based on observation or experimental evidences.
10. It demands accurate observation or experimentation.
11. In research, the researchers try to find out answers for
unsolved questions
 According to Mc Daniel and Gates, “Business research is the
planning, collection and analysis of data relevant to business
decision making and communication of the results of this analysis to
management.”

Business research simply defined as’ “The systematic and objective

process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in
making business decisions.”
Features of Business Research
1. Process Bound: Business research is a process of arriving at solution
to a problem through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of
data.
2. Objective oriented: Business research is undertaken with the aim of
accomplishing specific objectives. The research must collect and analyze
data in a systematic way for a specific purpose.
3. Interdisciplinary: Business research is not a single pure academic
discipline. In business a lot of problems are to answered. Therefore, it
uses the tools of multiples of disciplines such as psychology, economics,
sociology, mathematics etc.
4. Multidimensional:
The important characteristics of business research are: it covers all
regions in which the business operates locally, nationally and
internationally.
5.Environmental considerations: A good research helps to judge the
local problems of the environment in which the enterprise is going to
operate. Starting a business requires the information about local
conditions, infrastructural factors, transportation, communication.
6.Test of business performance: Business research involves testing
the performance of business organization under study. It collects data
regarding the performance of business, analyse it and study the results.
7.Flexibility: A good business research should be flexible. Sometimes
unimportant matters may acquire importance in the course of
research then such matters should also be investigated and included in
8.The use of the internet:
Good business research should include the use of the internet. We can
collect data about the products, competitors in business field,
customers etc. with the use of internet.

9.Demand driven:
Business research is conducted to get more information. The demand
for information is the main driving force to conduct business research.

10.Empowerment of managers:
Business research empowers the managers to take better decisions.

11. Answering unsolved business problems:

In business research, the researcher try to find out answers to
unsolved questions related to business.
12. Use of both primary and secondary data:
Business research involves collection of primary and secondary data.

13.Customer influence: Every business activity is customer oriented.

So business research has to focuses on customer and his influence.

14.Systematic: Researcher requires performing their activities in a

sequential order.

15.Time bound: Time management is crucial for the success of

business research.Delay makes the data obsolete and the results out
of date.

16. Dynamic:
Business research is undertaken in a fast changing environment. The
researcher should take a cautious and systematic approach to deal with
rapid changes.
Role of Business Research in decision making

1. Product Analysis:

Product analysis is one of the area of business research.

Product analysis must be conducted to find whether:
a. A product that meets or exceeds the customer demand.
b. A product that have high market share.
c. A product that can be improved through design or features.
d. A product with high demand and low supply.
 2. Market Analysis:
Market analysis must be conducted by the management to look at
which stage the business cycle the market is currently in, whether
emerging, decline… Each stage have has its own profitability. First being
the highest and last stage being the lowest profitability. Therefore
market analysis is used to determine how much profit may be earned at
current stage.It is also used to determine the price at which product can
be sold.
3. Financial Analysis:
A financial analysis determines the cost of each production item used to
produce goods and services. High cost may allow companies to price
goods and service competitively and that in turn leads to unprofitable
situation. It also examines the best cost applicable methods, ensuring
that the production costs are properly applied to each product or service
 4. Competitor Analysis:
It helps to know the companies which have the best production methods
or customer loyalty. This helps the companies to understand their
competitive advantages when they entering a new market. Market
analysis also helps to determine the financial stability of the company.
5. Growth Analysis:
Business research usually includes forecasting the growth and direction
of the current industry or market. The knowledge about the direction the
market is headed helps companies to determine the stability of new
business operations. A slow growth industry may be unprofitable in the
early stage but it has long term growth potential in the later stage
whereas a high growth industry may be profitable in the early stage but
will be unprofitable in the later stage.
 Functions of Business Research

1. Management tool:
Business Research is act as a management tool that can
be used for creating business strategies, decision making,
managing
production and the growth of the company.

2. Source of information:
Business research simply gather or purchase relevant
statistics and data from reliable sources.

3. Redefining perceptions:
Business research provides an opportunity for assessment. The
manufacturer may have some assumption about the industry. It
has the perception about their role. All these may change through
business research assessment.
 4. Risk management:
Business research helps to lower risk by supplying
relevant information about the present conditions such
as the trend and market condition.

5. Shape strategies:
Business research can inform and shape business
strategies. If we know what competitors are doing and
the direction they are headed then it can inform present
business strategies.
 Objectives/ Purpose of Business Research

1. To promote business in an economically sound manner:

2. To ensure future success:
3. Gather relevant information for smooth conduct of business:
4. To determine the players in the job market:
5. Helps the managers to identify and solve small problems:
6. To save time and cost:
7. Facilitate managerial decision making:
 Importance of conducting Business Research

1. Job seekers:
2. Investors:
3. B2B Providers:
Business to Business meets the needs of other
businesses.
Business that provide professional services such as
management consulting, lawful services, accounting and tax
related services are experienced researcher who consider the
viability of approaching their target market.
4. Companies:
Companies conduct business research for a number of
reasons such as: Testing new products, Measuring
advertisement effectiveness, Studying competitions etc.
 Phases of Research / Business Research (Process/
Stages of Business Research)

1. Tentative or temporary selection of the research

problem:

The first and foremost task of a researcher is to identify

the area of research or problem he wants to study. As the areas
of
research is suggested by administrator or policy makers. It is
essential to understand the problem of study well.
He should also consider the time and availability of resources.

The major sources of problem are: Reading, Academic

experience, Daily experience, Discussions.
 2. Initial survey of literature:

At this stage the researcher can go through two types of

literature. They are: Theoretical review/ conceptual review and
empirical review.
Theoretical review consists of concepts and theories and
empirical review consist of studies made earlier which are
similar
to proposed for study. The ultimate aim of initial review of
literature is to bring out a frame of reference for research and
by
that a researcher can specify the research problems in a
meaningful way.
 3. Finalization or selection of research problem:

In this stage, the problem should be finalized and

should be put in specific terms. While selecting the
problem
the following points are to be considered:
a. The subject of the research should not be too wide and
uncontrollable in nature.
b. Topic should suit to his academic background, knowledge
and experience of researcher.
c. Availability of time and money are also considered while
selecting the problem.
 4. Formulation of a problem:
The selected problem should be translated and transformed
into a meaningful form with proper title and that should indicates
the objective of the researcher and their focus point of the study.

5. Extensive literature survey:

Before formulating the research it is desirable that
researcher
examines all available literature, both conceptual and empirical.
The conceptual literature is one which deals with concepts
and
theories.
Empirical literature is that which contains studies made
earlier and so it consists of many facts and figures observed in the
earlier studies. The final objective of extensive literature survey is
to
prepare bibliography of work of study.
 6. Writing a Primary Synopsis:
After formulating the problem, a brief summary of the
topic should be written. It is known as Synopsis. Synopsis
clearly
indicates what is to be included for study. It should also indicate
the importance of the study and methods of research.

7. Identifying and Labelling Variables:

In any research the problem under study deals with
relation between variables. The variables whose change has
affected the other variable, is called independent variable.

Therefore there is a cause and effect relation between

the
variables. The research problem must be formulated in such a
manner that it highlights the nature, extent and implications of
relation existing between the variables.
8. Setting Up Of Hypothesis:

A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion which is

logically drawn. It is process of setting a tentative (guessing)
solution by relating both dependent and independent
variables. While setting a tentative solution they try to set
both positive (H1) and negative (H0) solution. The research
work is conducted to test the truth of this hypothesis.
 9. Preparing the Research Design:

A research design is a plan that specifies the sources

and types of information relevant to the research problem.
It
is a strategy which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data. It includes the time and cost budgets
since most studies are done under these two constraints. A
research design provides a rational approach to research
enabling one to decide in advance what to do, how to do, in
investigating the subjects.
 11.Collecting of Data:

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate

data. Some of the methods of collecting primary data are (1)
Observation method. (2) Direct personal interview method.
(3)Telephone interview method. (4) Questionnaire method. (5)
Schedule method.
12.Processing, Analysis and Interpretation of Data by
Statistical Methods:
The processing of data consists of classification,
tabulation and coding. By classification and tabulation the
whole data can be condense into few manageable and purposeful groups.
And tables so that further analysis becomes simple. Coding converts the data into
symbols and small figures so that the data can be dealt with in an easy manner. Editing
improves the quality of the data since it is at this stage that data which is irrelevant can
be dropped. Analysis and interpretation of data results in observation, analysis,
conclusion, induction and deduction. For this various statistical measures are computed.
 12.Processing, Analysis and Interpretation of Data by
Statistical Methods:

The processing of data consists of classification, tabulation and coding.

By classification and tabulation the whole data can be condense into
few manageable and purposeful groups. And tables so that further
analysis becomes simple.

Coding converts the data into symbols and small figures so that the
data can be dealt with in an easy manner.
Editing improves the quality of the data since it is at this stage that data
which is irrelevant can be dropped.
Analysis and interpretation of data results in observation, analysis,
conclusion, induction and deduction. For this various statistical
measures are computed.
 13.Testing of Hypothesis

Testing of hypothesis will results in either accepting

or rejecting the hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis may prove
or
disprove a theory and a theory facilitates formulating of a
further hypothesis.

Testing of hypothesis will resulting contribution to existing

theory or the generation of a new theory.
 14.Preparation of the Report or Thesis

The report should contain the preliminary section,

the main body and the end matter. The preliminary section
contains only titles, acknowledgement and table of
contents.

It carries introduction, methodology, statement of

the problem, findings, conclusions and recommendations.
The end matter includes appendix and bibliography. The
appendix includes letters, questions or other tools used.
Bibliography is the list of books, journals. Reports, bulletins
etc. used for reference.

Types of Research
Application Objective Inquiry Mode Other Types

1. Pure 1. Descriptive 1. Quantitative 1. Longitudinal

2. Applied 2. Exploratory 2. Qualitative 2. Ex Post Facto

3.Correlational 3. Experimental /
Laboratory

4. Explanatory 4. Simulation

5. Analytical
 On the basis of application.

1 Pure Research

1 It is also called fundamental or basic or theoretical research.

2 It is mainly concerned with generalization and with formulation
of a theory.
3 It is concerned with principles, laws and rules.
4 It is the researcher’s curiosity that lies behind this type of
research.
5 It is concerned with finding solutions to typical problems. But the
essence of basic research is finding answers to fundamental
questions.
6 It helps in introducing new theories, providing conformation to
an
existing theory or learns more about a concept or phenomenon.
7 This research is the foundation for Applied research.
 Features of Pure Research

1. It is related with rules, laws and practices.

2. It seeks to expand knowledge
3. It is theory based.
4. It is designing and constructing new theories when old ones lose
their
relevance.
5. It has a collective appeal rather than an individual one.
6. It is simply gaining knowledge for the sake of knowledge.
7. It is the foundation of applied research
 2. Applied Research

• This type of research is also known as practical research, action

research or decisional research.
• It is conducted to find a solution to a problem faced by the
society.
• It is concerned with applied aspect of life.
• This research is conducted to identify social economic and
political trends that may affect a particular Institution.
• Applied research generally takes the form of general surveys.
• This type of research is carried on to find solution to a real life
problem requiring and action or policy decision.
• It is first problem oriented or action oriented.
 Features of Applied research

1. It is problem oriented
2. It involves application of theories for construction of models
to find solution to the problems faced by the society.
3. It is need based
4. It has high practical relevance
5. It is result oriented and is driven by a clear idea
6. Solutions to the problems help in framing fundamental laws
7. It can contribute new facts
8. It integrates previous theories
9. Time and cost factors of this type of research are well planned
and
budgeted.
 II. On the basis of objectives

1. Descriptive research

1. Descriptive research is carried out with the objective of describing

a
particular situation event or an individual.
2. It is a fact finding investigation
3. This type of research aims at studying the express characteristics
of a problem such as what is the problem? Where does it
arise? when does it happen? How does it arise? Who is behind the
problem?
4. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding and queries
of
different kinds.
5. Data Collection is done by using any one of the methods like
 2. Exploratory Research

Exploratory or formulative research is a preliminary

study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher
has little or no knowledge.
• This type of research is concerned with the discovery of new
facts, things, focus or ideas.
• It is in fact a beginning of the research.

• Through this type of research we are able to acquire

information about fields that is unknown to us.
 3. Correlational research

This is the study to discover, or establish the existence

of
relationship or association or interdependence between two or
more
aspects or situations.
Example:- What is the impact of advertisement campaign on the
sale
of product?
What is the relationship between stressful living and the
incidence of heart attacks?
What is the relationship between technology and
unemployment?
These studies examine whether there is relationship between two
or
more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and therefore, are
 4. Explanatory research

• This type of research is also known as causal research.

• This research aims at identifying the cause and effect relationship
between variables.
• It is designed to be determine whether one or more variables causes or
effects one or more of outcome variables
• It is not concerned with how things are but are used to say why things
are in the way they are.
• It deals with why questions.
 5. Analytical Research
It aims at critical examination of the matter under study
by
analyzing the fact of information already available. It is a technique
of
analysis applied to quantitative data. It is also known as statistical
method.

It concentrates on analyzing data

in depth. Example : Analysis of
financial
performance.
III On the basis of Inquiry mode

1.Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research is applicable to phenomenon’s that
are measurable so that they can be expressed in quantity
This research employs quantitative measurement and the use of
statistical analysis.
For eg : A study conducted to find out the proportion of
college students using self driven vehicles for coming to college for
a
given area.
2.Qualitative Research

 It describes reality as experienced by the groups, communities,

individuals etc.
 This research is designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject.
 Qualitative research is specially important in behavioural science
where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human
behavior.
 To apply a qualitative research one should seek the guidance of a
psychologist.
 IV. Other types of research

1. Longitudinal Research:

It involves the study of the problem or the same body of phenomenon

over a period of time.

Example: A study to evaluate the exam result of BCom students in

2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019.
Such studies indicate a trend.
It is a form of a time series analysis.
2. Ex post facto research:

If a research is undertaken about events that have already

taken place. It is called Ex post facto research.

The main characteristics of research are that the researcher

has no control over the variable.
The researcher can only report on what has happened
3.Experimental / Laboratory research:

Experimental research is based on experiments conducted in a

laboratory.

For Example: Research in physics is experimental.

It is also useful in social science, management
science etc.
 4. Simulation

Simulation is a powerful tool in business research that allows

researchers to create virtual environments to study
complex systems and processes. By mimicking real-world
conditions, simulations enable researchers to test
different scenarios, analyze outcomes, and gain insights
that might be difficult or impossible to obtain through
traditional methods.
 Methods of Formation of Theory:
a. Induction & b. Deduction
a. Induction:
If data is collected to build a theory is known as induction approach. It
is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole, from particular
to general or from the individual to the universal.

For eg : If it is observed in a number of cases that when price

increases less is purchased. Therefore the generalization is when
price increases demand falls.
 b. Deduction:
It is a way of making a particular inference from a
generalization.
It is the movement of knowledge from general to
particular. i.e. From a general rule to a particular case.
For Example: All Students of V BCom CA are brilliant.
Jithin is in V BCom CA
Therefore that can be deducted that Jithin is a brilliant
student.
As deductive reasoning works from general to particular this is
called top down approach.
 Concepts:
Concepts are the building blocks of theory. The
dictionary meaning of concept is ‘an abstract idea’.
There are various interrelated concepts in theory.

Theories require an understanding of the relationship

among concepts. A concept is a common characteristics or
features i.e. It is a bundle of meaning or characteristics
associated
with certain tangible objects, events, conditions or situations.
Concept can acquire through personal experience. We use
number of concept in our daily life such as weight, height etc.
 Construct:
A construct is a concept that is not directly observable.
For e.g.: Job satisfaction, creativity etc. are construct because they
are not easily measurable.
A construct is more abstract or general than concept. Concrete
concept are combined together to build constructs. Higher level
concepts are called constructs.
In short, constructs is the theoretical creations that are
based on observations but which cannot be seen either directly or
indirectly.
Conceptual Scheme:
A conceptual scheme is the interrelationship between
concepts and constructs. It is the map of concepts and their
interrelationship.

For e.g.: Things, place, time, events, individuals and ideas

are explained in a logical manner focusing on their
interrelationship.

A conceptual scheme is a set of concepts connected

together to form an integrated whole that specifies and clarifies
the relationships among them.
 A proposition explains the logical connection among
certain concepts by stating universal connection between
concept
Propositions.

Proposition serves to bring together the concepts of

the theory. Proposition helps us to understand concept and
relate
and integrate them into theory. It is a statement about
observable
phenomena that may be judged as true or falsest. A proposition
is
a declarative statement of a concept.
 9. Operational definitions:

If the people involved in research get different

meanings
from the same words, then the people are communicating well.
Thus, the way to reduce this risk is definitions. Generally,
researchers deal with two types of definitions.

10. Variables:
A variable is an attribute on which things vary.
Dictionary meaning of variable is changing or changeable. A
variable is an entity that takes on different value. In other words, a
variable is anything that can change in its quantity or value.
Types of variables
1. Dependent variable
 If one variable depends upon another variable or is the
consequence of other variable, it is termed as dependent
variable.
For e.g.: Teaching style improves the student’s performance.
Here student performance is a dependent variable because it is
affected by teaching style.
2. Independent variable:
2. Independent variable:
If one variable brings an effect on another variable or
causes other variable is known as independent variable.
For e.g.: Teaching style improves the student’s
performance. Here teaching style is an independent variable
because
it brings an effect on student’s performance.
3. Moderating variable
 3. Moderating variable:
A variable that delineates how a
relationship of interest changes under different conditions
or
circumstances. Sometimes a relationship does not
generalize
to everyone, therefore researchers often use moderator
variable to show the relationship changes across the levels
of
an additional variable.
Moderating variable modify the cause and
effect
relationship between the independent variable and
dependent
variable. It is the second independent variable that brings a
strong contingent effect on the dependent variable and
first
independent variable
4. Intervening variable (Mediating variable)
 4. Intervening variable (Mediating variable):
An intervening variable is one which suggests that the relationship
between the independent variable and the dependent variable is not a direct
one. In other words, it tells why there is a relationship between two variables.
A
variable that comes in between other variables and that helps to describe the
process through which variables affect one another.
For eg: If the teaching style was good, environment was excellent yet the student
could

not recall basics of the lecture when asked the very next day. There must be

some intervening variable which blocked the minds of student’s. May be

students were worried about their examinations or some other matters.

5. Extraneous variable:
 5. Extraneous variable:

Extraneous variables are the variables which are outside or

external to the situation under study. Extraneous variable are undesirable

variables that influences the relationship between the variables that the

researcher is examining. Extraneous variable / cofounding variables are

variable other than the original independent variable and which may have
an

effect on the dependent variable.

For eg: Family income of students can be taken as extraneous variable
6. Dichotomous variable
 6. Dichotomous variable
Dichotomous variable is the variable that has only two
values reflecting the presence or absence of a property.
For eg: Male and female
Research hypothesis

Hypothesis is a tentative statement showing the

relationship between two or more variables, the reliability and

validity

of which is to be tested and verified. It expresses the nature and

degree of relationship between variables.

Hypotheses are -

Assumptions

Tentative statements

Propositions

Answering the questions

Proposed solution to a problem

Statements which are to be tested

To be accepted or rejected

To be verified empirically on the basis of sample

 Features of Hypothesis

1. It should be simple, clear and precise.

2. It should be capable of being tested.
3. It should be specific and relevant.
4. It should be predictable.
5. It should provide tentative answers to the proposed research
problem.
6. It should be manageable.
7. It should state the relationship between variable.
8. It should be stated before starting the main study.
9. It should be tested within a reasonable period of time.
Functions of Hypothesis

Hypothesis serves the following functions:

1. It will bring clarity to the research problem.

2. It provides a study with focus.
3. It prevents unnecessary collection of data.
4. It formulates theory.
5. It helps to enhance of objectivity of the study.
6. It enables to conclude with what is true or what is

false.
Needs / Importance of Hypothesis

1. It brings direction to research.

2. It specifies the focus of researcher.
3. It prevents unnecessary collection of data.
4. It ensure accuracy and precise.
5. It serves resources such as money, energy and time.
6. It helps in developing research techniques.
7. It enables to conclude with what is true and what is false.
 Types of Hypothesis

Descriptive Hypothesis

Descriptive hypothesis describing the

characteristics of a variable (may be an object,
person, organization, event, and situation).

Relational Hypothesis

Relational hypothesis establishes the relationship

between two variables. It may be positive,
negative or nil relationship.
For e.g. High income leads to high savings.
 Causal Hypothesis
The change in one variable leads to change in another
variable i.e. Dependent and independent variables, one variable is a
cause and the other one is the effect.

Statistical hypothesis:
A Hypothesis that is to be tested statistically is termed as
statistical hypothesis. Quantitative techniques are used to test the
hypothesis. For e.g. T test, F test etc.

Null hypothesis:
It is a hypothesis that expresses no relationship between variables.
 Alternative hypothesis:
If the working hypothesis is proved wrong to be rejected
another hypothesis is formulated to be tested to generate
results.
Actually it is the alternative assumption about a particular
statement and is denoted by H1.
Simple hypothesis:
It is a hypothesis that reflects the relationship between
two
variables (independent variable and dependent variable).
Complex hypothesis:
It is a hypothesis that reflects the relationship among
more than two variables.
Logical hypothesis:
A hypothesis that can be logically verified is termed as
logical hypothesis. The relationship between variables are stated
and verified in a logical manner.
 Complex hypothesis:
It is a hypothesis that reflects the relationship more than
two variables.

Logical hypothesis:
A hypothesis that can be logically verified is termed as
logical hypothesis. The relationship between
variables are stated and verified in a logical
manner.
 Working hypothesis

It is the hypothesis that is accepted to test and work on in

a
research. It is the hypothesis that is assumed to be
suitable
to explain certain facts and relationship between the
phenomenon.
DATA
 DATA

The collection of data is the primary step in statistical

investigation. Collection of data is a process of enumeration
together with proper recording of results. The success of enquiry
depends upon proper collection of data.
 DATA

Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials,

past and present serving basis for study and analysis.
Example: sex, religion, income level of respondents.
Importance of Data

1. The data serves as bases of raw materials for analysis.

2. To draw a specific inference, analysis of factual data is required.
3. The quality of the findings of the study is determined by the
adequacy and reliability of the collected data.
4. It act as a basis for the testing of hypothesis.
5. It provides the facts and figures required for the construction of
measurement scales and tables, which are analysed, with the
help
of quantitative techniques
Classification of Data
1. Primary data:

Primary data are the data originally collected for an investigation. This type
data are original in character because these are collected by a
investigator himself for the first time for a specific purpose.

Example: Population census

Merits

1. Degree of accuracy is quite high.

2. It does not require extra caution.

3. It includes definition of various terms and units used.

4. It depicts the data in great detail.

5. For some investigation, secondary datas are not available.

 2. Secondary Data
Secondary data are those which are collected from

published or unpublished source.

Such data are already been collected, tabulated and

presented in some form by someone else for some other

purpose.

● Secondary data are usually in the shape of finished products.

● Researcher has to modify such data for their personal requirement.

 The secondary sources may be both internal and external.

A Internal sources

Internal sources of data are those which are obtained from the
internal

reports of an organisation. Internal data provide the must with a

large

volume of detailed information for future use.

B External sources

External sources refer to the information collected from outside

agencies through census or sample method by conducting surveys

and investigation.
Example: Journals, News papers, Diaries, Letters etc.
Choice between primary data and secondary data
The selection of data sources depends upon the following:
1. Nature and scope of the enquiry or study.
2. Accessibility of financial resources.
3. Availability of time.
4. Degree of accuracy necessary for the study.
5. The status of the investigator or researcher.
6. The availability of trained investigators
Methods of Data Collection
 Methods of Collecting Primary Data

1. Observation

Observation means watching things with a purpose. Observation is a physical

and mental activity. It is selective. i.e. the researcher selects the range of things
to be observed.

Observations has three components namely sensation, attention and perception.

Sensation is derived from sense organisation.

Attention is related to the ability to concentrate on the subject matter of study.

Perception is related with the ability of a person to perceive a thing.
Types of observation

1. Simple Observation:

Observation is done to collect data at exploratory stages of

research is termed as simple observation.
2. Systematic Observation
In systematic observation standard procedures, training to
observers, schedules for recording and other devices
to control observers are employed.

3. Subjective Observation:

If one observes one’s own immediate experience it is

termed
4. Objective Observation:

When a person observes things in investigations, which

are
not related with him, is called objective observation.

5. Uncontrolled Observation:

It the observation takes place in the natural surroundings it is known as

uncontrolled observation.

6. Casual Observation:

In casual observation there is no previous preparation.

The
7. Scientific Observation:

If observations are carried on the basis of certain

measurement tools is called scientific observation.

8. Inter subjective Observation:

If repeated observations of a constant phenomenon

by different observers yield constant data, such
observation
is known as inter subjective observation.

9. Factual Observation:

If factual information is collected through observation, it is

known as factual observation.

10. Inference Observation:

Inferential observation is the observation which is done to

draw inferences.

11. Intra subjective Observation:

If repeated observations of a constant phenomenon by the

same observers which yield constant data, such
observation
is known as intra subjective observation.

12. Direct Observation:

In direct observation, the observer is physically present to

13. Indirect Observation

When observer observes particular situation by using mechanical

devices such as eye cameras is known as indirect observation.

14. Controlled or contrived:

When the observation takes place according to definite,

prearranged

plans involving experimental procedure, it is known as controlled

observation.

15. Structured observation

Structured observation refers to the observation made when the

type of activities and characteristics to be identified and recorded

are
16. Unstructured observation

An observation method is said to be unstructured when things to be observed

are not decided in advance.

There is no pre-determined rule for observation.

17. Participant observation

When the observer participates with the activities of the group under study.

It is known as participant observation.

The main advantages of this method are to get direct or accurate information.

18. Non-participant observation

The observer is present in the group but does not participant in their
activities.
PROCESS OF OBSERVATION
1. SENSATION
Components or Process of Observation

1. Sensation:
It is gained through sense organs. It depends upon the
physical attentiveness of the observer. The personality of
observer is more responsible for accurate observation.
2. Attention
Attention is the ability to select and process certain stimuli in the
environment while ignoring others.
It depends upon the ability of the observer to concentrate on concerned
studies.
3. PERCEPTION
3. Perception:
Perception is the viewpoints of individuals around the world and the
interpretation of the things they see.
perception helps the mind to recognise the facts by grouping and
identifying sensations.
 Advantages of Observation

1. Actual or habits of person are observed.

2. Obtain information from those who are unable to effectively communicate in
written or oral form.
3. No better way to gather information than through observation
4. Most reliable method of data collection
 Disadvantages of observation
1. Result of observation depends on the skill of the observer.
2. Options and attitudes cannot be obtain by observation
3. It should be expensive to tie up personnel in such tasks.
4. The researcher’s findings are limited to those observed.
2.INTERVIEW
2. Interview

Interview is a direct method of collecting data.

Through this method we can know the views and ideas
other person.
It is primarily used for understanding of the people’s
attitude, preferences and behaviour.
It can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in
a shopping centre etc.
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
2.A. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
Structured interview.

A set of question will be asked and the responses are record in a

structured form.
Here, the question and their order etc… are prefixed.
The investigator asks the respondents on the basis of questions.
The interview has no freedom to ask extra questions.
2.B. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
2.B. Unstructured interview(in-depth interview)
Unstructured interview is the one is which the questions are not
essentially pre planned, structured or ordered.
The interviewers are given some broad topics upon which they have to
collected information.
In this interview the interview and interviewee come together to create
a conversational intimacy and the participants feel comfortable in
providing full information.
2.C. PERSONAL INTERVIEW
2.C. Personal interview:
Here single person is interviewed.
Close personal contact between the interviewers and the
interviewee can be established.
2.D. Group interview:
2.D. Group interview:

Two or more person are interviewed.

It helps in gathering routine information.
Most economical in case of cost and time.
2.E. Formal interview:
2.E. Formal interview:

In this case the interview is conducted for collecting

information by presenting a set of well defined
questions.
2.G. Informal interview
2.F. Informal interview:

It is a flexible form of interview. The interviewer has full

freedom to make adequate alterations in the questions to suit the
specific needs of the interviewer
2.G. Focused interview
2.G. Focused interview:

This type of interview is to focus the attention of

the respondents on particular aspects to get his reaction.
2.H. Diagnostic interview:
Diagnostic interview:
This type of interview is carried out among patients. In this case
the interviewer tries to understand the causes of problem.
2.I. Treatment interview:
Treatment interview:
This type of interview is carried out to make the patients aware of
the causes of their deceases and advices them to change
the mode of life.
2.J. Research interview:
Research interview:
Conducted to gather information related to a specified problem.
PROCESS OF INERVIEW
1. Preparation:
Some preplanning and interview schedule is required
to carry on an interview.
He should also keep a list of the names and address of
the respondents. He should mentally prepare for the
interview.
2. Introduction:
As the respondents are concerned interviewer is a
stranger. So he will be properly introduced to the
respondents and they need to motivate the respondents.
3. Developing rapport:
Before stating the interview, good relationship and friendly
atmosphere must be created.
4. Carrying interview.
After establishing a friendly relationship, questions
are
asked from the interview schedule. Questions are to
be
explained if it is not understand by the respondents.
If
the conversation is going out of the track, then the
interviewer should try to get it on track.
5. Recording interview
All the required responses are to be noted as they
6. Closing of the interview:

After the interview, close the interview by

saying
thanks with a smile to respondent. If the
respondent wants to know the result of the
whole
responses, then note his address for sending
the
result after the study.
 7. Checking References

The candidates are required to write the name of one or two of

important respected and reputed persons in his locality. This
provide information relating to the background, skill, experience,
character, ability and suitability for the job of the candidates.
8. Medical examination
Advantages of interview
1. There are some kinds of information which can be gathered only
through interview.
2. Information can be in depth.
3. Delay due to responds can be avoided.
4. The interviewer can restructure the questions, if necessary.
5. Personal information can also be obtained.
6. The interview can be conducted in the language in which the
respondents can be replay.
7. The interviewer can regulate the interview.
Disadvantages of interview

1. It is a time consuming process.

2. It involves high cost.
3. Requires highly skilled interviewers.
4. Requires more energy.
5. The bias of the interviewer may influenced the interview.
3. Experimental method

This method is commonly used by marketers in test

marketing.
An experiment is the process of manipulating one or more
independent variables and measuring their effect on one or
more dependent variables, while controlling for the
extraneous
variables.
For conducting experimentation, the researcher need to form
two groups namely experiment group and control group.
Steps to be followed in experimental method

1. Firstly the researcher wants to determine the hypothesis to be tested

and
then determine the dependent and independent variables involved in it.
2. Select the type of experimentation plan.
3. Choosing the settings. The settings may be laboratory or field.
4. Make the experimental conditions as nearly as the expected real life
conditions.
5. Introduce suitable methods for controlling extraneous variables, which
are

not manipulated in experiment.

Types of Experiments

1. Laboratory Experiments
These are the experiments that take place in a laboratory or
in
an artificial setting. Here the investigator create conditions
and
upon which variable are tested.

2. Field experiments
These are the experiments that take place in the natural
setting
and they are more suitable in business research.
4. Simulation

Simulation involves creation of an artificial environment which is

very similar to the real environment. Thereafter within this

artificial

environment the variables are manipulated and studied.

Uses of simulation

1. Assessment of situation

2. Understanding a situation

3. Decision making in a situation

5. Use of telephone:

The researchers get information through telephone. This method is

quick and give accurate information.

6. Panel study:

Under panel study, investigator focused on the same population

and

is collecting the same sample by the same researcher over a period

of

time.
7. Through Telephone 0r Internet:

Today, data can be collected through internet. It helps

to

collected data globally with less time.

8. Projective technique:

The psychologists and psychiatrists had first devised

projective techniques for the diagnosis and treatment
of
patients afflicted by emotional disorders.

Such techniques are adopted to present a

comprehensive
profile of the individual’s personality structure, his
conflicts and complexes and his emotional needs.
9. Sociometry:

Under this method an attempt is made to trace the flow

of

information amongst groups and then examine the way

in

which new ideas are diffused. Sociometry is constructed

to

identify the leaders and followers.

10. Focused group method:

It is an interview with several people on a specific topic

or
Types of Focus group

1. Two way focus group

Under this method there are two group one group

will
listen to other group later the second group will
react
to the views of the first group.
2. Dual moderator focus group.
Here there are two moderators. One moderator will
make sure that the discussion move smoothly. The
second moderator asks questions and ensures all
topics are covered.
 3. Respondent moderator focus group :

Under this method the moderator will be selected from

the
participants. Here to acts as a temporary moderator.
4. Mini focused group:

In this group the number of participants is only 4 or 5.

5. Online focused group:

Under this method focused group section are conducted

by
internet. Security is the main problems of online focus
groups.
6. Client participant focus group

In this method one or more client representative participate in

the discussion either openly or confidently.
11. Case Study Method:

It was regarded as the best method of tracing social problems

in different aspects.
Case study refers to the intensive or in depth investigation of
a
single individual, group or events.

According to Biesanz and Biesenz “The case study is a form of

qualitative analysis involving the very careful and complete
observation of a person, a situation or an institution.”
Characteristics of case study
1.Single unit analysis: This method is known as single analysis
method, so one single social unit or more of such unit can be
studied.

2.Intensive study: This method is applied to study a particular unit

intensively. This study covers a long period to know the history of the
unit concerned.
3.Integrated study: It covers the complete area of a social unit i.e.
covering all facts and complex phenomena, different forces etc...
affecting the social unit.
4. Qualitative analysis:
It depends on perception and give a clear insight into life.
5. Interrelationship can be studied:
Different factors are taken into consideration and also study their
interrelationship.
6. Behavioural pattern can also be studied: It studies not only the
cause and effect relationship of the factors but also the reason for
change in the behavioural unit.
7. Flexible: The researcher has complete freedom to change or omit
the variables under study.
12. Surveys:

Under this method of data collection selecting a representative

sample of the population or universe under the study through
the use of questionnaire or schedule.
Different types of information can be collected including
attitudinal, motivational, behavioral etc.
Under this method the respondents were asked number of
questions regarding the behavior or intensions.
It is mainly used in commerce and management streams.
Features of survey method

- It is a field study.
- It is a fact finding study.
- It is a method of gathering information about large number of
people.
- There is a direct contact between investigator and
respondents.
- This is mainly applied in commerce and management streams.
- It deals with immediate social problems.
- It is done within a time frame.
- It is done either by census or sampling.
Objectives of survey method

It is a used for gathering information about large number of

people related to various social problems.
It studies the social problem and find out solutions to solve
them.
It provides information to government or other interested
users.
It provides information about the cause and effect
relationship.
It helps to explain each situation.
Types of survey
1.Cross sectional studies:

It deals with samples of element from a given

population. Number of

characteristics from the sample element are collected and

analyzed.

(The study is conducted during a particular period and

measuring

number of variables using same sample).

 2. Longitudinal studies:
This is based on panel data and panel method. Here same
variable
is repeatedly measured over different period of time. This help in
studying a particular behavior over a period of time.
It is again classified into three. They are:
a.Trend analysis:

Here the investigator focused on a particular population which is

sampled and analyzed repeatedly, people constituting samples

may

be different and it may be conducted by more than one

b. Cohort study

Cohert study:
Here the investigator focused on a particular population which
is
Here the investigator focused
sampled and on repeatedly,
analyzed a particular population
people which
constituting is
samples
sampled and analysed mayrepeatedly,
be different and are having
people some common
constituting characteristics
samples may
it
be different and are may
having some common characteristics it may be
be conducted by same researcher over a period.
conducted by same researcher over a period.
c. Panel study:
Panel study: Under panel
Under study, investigator
panel study, focused
investigator focusedon
onthe
the same
same population and is collecting the same sample by the same
population
researcher over a period of time.
and is collecting the same sample by the same researcher over
a

period of time.
Methods of survey
Methods of survey
There are mainly two methods of survey. They are:

There are mainly two methods of survey. They are:

1.Census survey:
1.Census survey: A complete survey of population is known as
A complete survey of population is known as
census method. In census survey, the entire population is subject
census method. In
matter of the survey. In other words it is a method of survey
census survey, the entire population is subject
under which the entire universe is surveyed. In short, census
matter of the survey.
survey simple means gathering of information about large
number of people by considering all of them.
It is a method of survey under which the entire
universe is surveyed.
Census survey simple means gathering of
 Merits
Merits / Features
/ Features of census
of census.

1. The data can be collected from each and every respondents of the
1. The data can be collected from each and every respondents
entire population.
of
2. Census data is more reliable and accurate.
the entire population.
3. The information based on census
2. Census method
data is more is and
reliable become a base for future
accurate.
study. 3. The information based on census method is become a base
for
4. It is suitable for collecting data on exceptional matters like child
future study.
labour, educational level of people etc.
4. It is suitable for collecting data on exceptional matters like
child labour, educational level of people etc......
Demerits of census survey

1.It is expensive.
Demerits of census survey
2.It is time consuming.
1.Itpopulation
3.If is expensive.
is large, more enumerators (investigators) are
2.It is time
needed consuming.
for collecting data.
4.The accuracy of information
3.If population is large, may be enumerators
more less because of more than
one enumerators.
(investigators) are needed for collecting data.
4.The accuracy of information may be less because of
more than one enumerators.
1.Sample survey :
2. Sample survey :
Sample
Sample
 A sample is the representative part of the population.
A sample is the representative part of the population.
 A sample is a smaller.
A sampleManageable version ofversion
is a smaller. Manageable a large of group.
a large group.

 It is a subset containing the

It is a subset characteristics
containing of a large
the characteristics of population.
a large population.

 Samples are used in statistical testing when the population size is too
large for the test to include all possible members or observation.
Sampling
 The act or process or technique of selecting a suitable sample from
the population is called sampling.
 It is the process of gathering information about large number of
people by considering few of them.
Definitions
According to William J George and Paul K Halt “a sample, as the
name implies small representation of larger whole.”
According to Bogadus, “Sampling means selection of certain
percentage of group item according to a predetermined plan.”
Purpose of sampling (Features/ Merits)

1.Sampling or sample survey incurs less cost as

compared to census method.

2.The sample provides needed information quickly.

3.It the size of population is large, it is better to

conduct sample survey.

4.It is considered as one of the feasible method of

data collection.
 Demerits of sampling
Demerits of sampling
1The data are not collected from each and
1.The data are not collected from each and every
every
respondent.

2.The information based on sampling is not accurate as

respondent.
compared to census.
1.The information based on sampling is not
3.The information based on sampling is not apt or future
accurate as compared to census.
studies.
2.The information
4.Drawing conclusions based on sampling
from a sample is risky. is not apt
5.Determining the representation of sample is a great
or future studies.
problem to the researcher..
3.Drawing conclusions from a sample is risky.
4.Determining the representation of sample is a
great problem to the researcher.
Sampling design
Sampling design
Sampling design is a working plan used for selecting sample and
this Sampling design is a working plan used for selecting sample and
this working working
plan plan mainly
mainly specifies population,
specifies population, sampling area, sampling
sampling area,
methods and sample size.
sampling methods and sample size.
Definitions
Definitions
According to Gerald Harsh, “A sampling design is a theoretical basis and practical
According
means by to Gerald
which we infer Harsh, “A
the characteristics sampling
of some design
population is a theoretical
by generalising from the
basis
characteristics of relatively few of the unit comprising the population.”

Inand
short, samplingmeans
practical design defined
by whichas awe
blueprint
infer used for selecting samples.
the characteristics of some
population by generalising from the characteristics of relatively
few of the unit comprising the population.” In short, sampling
Features of sampling design

A good sample design should have the following characteristics:

1.A good sample design is able to control the systematic bias.

2.A sample design must be financially viable.

3.The sample design is able to reduce sampling errors.

4.The outcome of sample design must be a truly representative

sample.

5.The result obtained as per sampling will be reliable and accurate.

METHODS OF SAMPLING
I. Random/ Probability Sampling. II. Non-Random /Non-probability
Sampling
I.1.Unrestricted/ Simple Random sampling

A. Convenience Sampling
A. Lottery Method B. Judgemental Sampling
B. Random Number Method C. Quota Sampling
I. 2. Restricted Random Sampling D. Snow Ball Sampling
A. Systematic Sampling E. Volunteer Sampling
B. Stratified Sampling
C. Cluster Sampling
D. Multi Stage Sampling
E. Random Route Sampling
I. RANDOM/PROBABILITY SAMPLING
I.Random Sampling /Probability Sampling

. A probability/Random sample is the one in which each members of the

population has an equal chance for being selected.

● This is considered as the simplest procedure for drawing a sample from

given population.

● Sampling errors can be calculated easily in random sampling.

● Random sampling is again classified in to 2.

1.1. Unrestricted /Simple Random Sampling.

● A simple random method is the one in which each and every item of
population or universe has equal and independent chance of being
included in the sample.

● It is the suitable where population is relatively small and where

sampling frame is complete and up to-date.

● The simple or unrestricted samples are usually obtained by using two

methods.
I.1.A. Lottery method:
● It is the process of drawing lots from the population or universe.

● In this method all the items of population are represented in small papers of same
size.

● Then the paper folded in the same manner are mixed together and are deposited

in a basket.

● Finally the needed samples are being selected from the basket.
I.1.B. Random Number Method.

● Under this method, the investigator uses random number table to

select the sample from the universe or population. For that they
make use of the following 3 most popular table.

The Random Number method is a way to select a subset of a

population by assigning numbers to each individual and then
randomly picking some of them.
1.2. Restricted Random sampling

Restricted random sampling is a sampling technique that involves

randomly selecting samples from a population while applying certain
restrictions

● It can be applied when sample size is large.

A. Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a statistical method used to select a

subset of individuals from a larger population.
It involves choosing a starting point at random and then
selecting every nth individual from the population.
B. Stratified sampling
● In this method, the entire population is divided in to a number
of group or strata based on their homogeneity (common
characters).

● Since this method deals with “strata “and so it is called

stratified sampling.
C. Cluster Sampling
● In cluster sampling firstly the investigator select groups or clusters and
then from each cluster he selected the individual subjects by either
simple random systematic random sampling.

● The most common cluster used in investigation is a geographical

cluster.
D. Multi stage sampling

Multi stage sampling can be a complex from cluster sampling

because it is a type of sampling which involves dividing the

population in to groups (or cluster).

Then one or-more cluster are chosen at random and everyone

within the chosen cluster is sampled.
E. Random Route Sampling.

Systematic sampling is a statistical method used to select a subset

of individuals from a larger population. It involves choosing a
starting point at random and then selecting every nth individual from
the population.
● This method is used in market research survey.

Eg: Survey in shops, households, etc....

● It is conducted within a particular area, so the chance of bias is

less.
 II. Non-probability/Non-Random sampling.

Non-probability sampling is used when the population size is

infinite.

Under non-probability sampling the chance of sample from the

population is unknown.

Non-probability sampling is again classified in to:

A. Convenience sampling:

In this sampling the researcher study/select those persons

who are most conveniently available or accidental comes in
his contact during the period of study.
 B. Quota Sampling

It is a version of stratified sampling, with the difference ,

instead of dividing the population in to strata ,they are

randomly choosing by setting a fixed quota by the

researcher based on some characteristics.

Eg .If the researcher wants to select a sample of 500
customers from 10 market centres. Then he will interview 50
from each of 10 market centres.
 C. Judgemental sampling

It is also known as purposive sampling. Under this sampling, the

researcher purposely choosing or judging those people who
are needed for the study and are selected, based on some
appropriate characteristics.

It is mainly used for increasing the performance of sales man.

D. Snow Ball Sampling

In this technique, the researcher begin the research with a

few respondents, who are known and are available to him.

Subsequently those respondents give other name who meet

the criteria of research and who in turn give more new

names.

This process is continued until adequate number of persons

is interviewed.
E. Volunteer Sampling/ Self Selection Sampling.

Self selection is perhaps self explanatory.

Respondents themselves decide that they would like to take

part in the survey.

Sample size

Sample size is the amount of sample taken for collecting the response
of

respondents related to a research study.

It is difficult to select the size of sample because the size of sample should
not

be too small or too large.

when size of sample is large then it incur high cost and time.

At the same time, if the size of sample is small then the result will not be

accurate. So size of sample should be adequate in size

 Sampling error (Standard error):

These are the errors that arise at the time of sampling

or

at the time of sample survey. In sampling, sampling

errors

are considered as standard errors.

Sample errors are related with the sample size is

gathered

the sample size and if sample size is lesser then the

standard errors will be higher and vice versa .Therefore

Types of Errors

a. Biased error:

These are the errors that are occurred due to the wrong selection of

sampling method. It is also known as cumulative method.

b. Unbiased error:

These are the errors that occur due to the chance differences between

sample selected and sample not selected from the population. It is also

known as Non cumulative error.

Non-Sampling errors:

The non- sampling errors are those errors that arise due to the

mistake in executing research It is again classified into two. They

are:

a. Respondent error:
These are the errors that occur as a result of non response of
respondents or wrong response of respondents.
b. Administrative error:

These are the errors that arise due to the improper administration of research process.
i.e. poor structuring of questions, collecting information from wrong persons etc.
Mail Survey

 Here there is an impersonal contact.

 A questionnaire is prepared and is mailed to respondents

 The respondents are expected to read and understand the questions and write down
the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.

 It is the most widely and economical survey conducted in a business.

 It takes long duration for conducting survey.

Types of Mail survey

1.Industrial and consumer survey:

These survey are conducted among manufacturers, wholesalers, dealers or

suppliers of products, which are used for industrial uses.

2. Media studies:

Advertisers, their agents and media itself conduct a mail survey among the
readers to know the effectiveness.

3. Multiple surveys.

2. In this case survey is conducted among several groups of people.

Merits of Mail survey

1. It is having wider area coverage.

2. It is having less bias because the questionnaires are researched

at

the right destinations.

3. Respondents are trying to give thoughtful replies.

4. It is having a centralised control.

5. It is cost saving.
Demerits of Mail survey

1. A readymade mailing list is not available for conducting mail survey.

2. It is difficult to conduct a mail survey if questionnaire are too long.

3. Lack of cooperation among respondents due to long questionnaire.

4. Respondents are giving wrong response or no response to questions.

5. Time consuming.
Data collection tools

Questionnaire:

Questionnaire is a document containing a list of questions

designed
to solicit information from respondents appropriate for analysis.
It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private

and public organization and even the government.

Questionnaire design process
1. Defining the objectives of the survey:
A questionnaire that is written without a clear objective and

purpose is unavoidably waste participant’s time by asking

useless questions.
2. Deciding on the information required:
The researcher may already have an idea about the kind of

information to be collected from secondary data.

3. Determining the sampling group:

The researcher should decide the population and samples

from which the data is to be collected.

4.Choose the method of reaching target respondents:
Choose the method of reaching target respondents can

be considered as a part of the questionnaire design

process.
5.Writing the questionnaire:

If the researcher has been loyally executed previous

steps, then the most of the questions will be on clear

subjects.
6.Administering the questionnaire:
First of all the researcher should provide a descriptive title for the
questionnaire. Then write an introduction to the questionnaire. The
items are grouped by contents, and then provide a subtitle for each
group. Place the item in same format together. At the end of
questionnaire, point out what respondents should do next.
7. Piloting the questionnaire:

A pretest of questionnaire is necessary before it is issued for full scale

survey. Pretest is essential for getting desire results and to identify
mistakes for making corrections.
8. Development of final questionnaire:

Usually a small number of respondents are selected for the

pretest. On the basis of the pretest, the questionnaire is to be

redrafted. A good questionnaire is one which helps directly to

achieve the research objectives, provide complete and

accurate
information.
Essentials of Questionnaire

1) Structure:
The structure of the questionnaire should be attractive. Adequate
important
should be given to the physical form of the questionnaire such as size,
length, margin and spacing, use one side of the paper etc.
2) Brevity:
The questionnaire should be as brief as possible.
3) Simplicity:
The questionnaire should be drafted in simple language.
4) Ambiguity:

The respondents must be in no doubt as to what a question means.

5) Leading questions:
It is unwise to lead the respondent to provide a certain response to a

question you have posed.

6) Sequence:
The questions should be arranged in proper sequential order.
7) Personal questions:
It is always wise to avoid personal questions unless they are
absolutely necessary.
8) Double barreled questions:
The question that gives different possible responses to its
subpart should be avoided.
9) Arrangements of questions:
The questions of the same category should be arranged
together.
10) Nature of the response:

Questions should be arranged based on the nature of

response of respondents.
Guidelines for the preparation of Questionnaire

1. Keep the language pitched to level of the respondent.

2. Avoid long questions.
3. Try to pick words that have same meaning for everyone.
4. Avoid biased or misleading questions.
5. Avoid ambiguous wording.
 6. Do not prior assume that your respondent possesses
factual
information.
7. Decide whether the questions should be open or closed.
8. Decide whether general or specific questions are needed.
9. Decide whether personal or impersonal questions will
obtain

better response.
10. Questions should be limited to single idea or single
reference
Forms of Questionnaire
1. Structured questionnaires:
It contain definite, concrete and direct questions. The
questions are presented exactly the same wording and in

the same order to all respondents. It is simple to

administrate.
2. Non structured questionnaires:
It may consist of partially completed questions or
statements. It often used as interview guide.
3.Closed form: In this type of questionnaire, the questions are having
limited number of alternative options for expressing the
response of respondents.
Forms of Questionnaire
4. Structured questionnaires:
It contain definite, concrete and direct questions. The questions are presented exactly
the same wording and in the same order to all respondents.
5. Non structured questionnaires:
It may consist of partially completed questions or statements. It often used as
interview guide.
6. Closed form:
The questions are having limited number of alternative options for expressing the
response of respondents. i.e. closed questions are asked with fixed alternatives.
7. Open form: It is open or unrestricted type of questionnaire. It call for free
response of the respondents.
Merits of questionnaire

1. Questionnaire is highly economical.

2. It is free from bias.
3. Respondents get enough time to answer the questions.
4. It ensures uniformity by standardized wording of the question.

5. The data so collected are very much original.

 Merits of questionnaire
.
6. Questionnaire can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
7. This method can be applied where the field of investigation is

wide.
8. No prior arrangements are needed for data collection.
9. The results of questionnaires can usually be quickly and
easily
quantified.
10. Replies may be received very quickly.
Demerits of questionnaire

1. It cannot used for getting information from literate or semi

literate persons.

2. The researcher is not able to establish a proper personal

relationship with the respondents.

3. Lack of responds from the respondents. Several reminders

may be required.
4. The information collected may not be very much reliable.

5. Illegible handwriting of the respondents sometimes creates much

difficulty for the researchers to understand the responses.

6. Personal bias may affect.

 Schedule Method

A schedule is a device used in collecting field data

en
survey method is applied. It is used in direct
erviews.

It is a Performa containing a set of questions and

tables. This Performa is filled by field staffs who are
specially appointed for the purpose.
Contents of Schedules
The schedule is divided in to three parts;
a. Introductory part: It includes
(a) The introductory information about the problem under
investigation and the respondent such as the name, serial
number etc of the survey.
(b) General information about respondent like address, age, sex,
education, income etc.
(c) The date, place and time of interview.
b. Main schedule:
It consists of titles, columns, questions and blank tables that
is
meant for securing information from respondents in respect
of
the problem under investigation.
c. Instructions:

Here, the researcher is given direction regarding the method

of

interview
Types of Schedules
1. Observation schedule:
It is used for recording observations. It is mainly
used to verify information.
2. Evaluation schedule:
It is used to gather information about specialized
institutions or agencies.
3. Document schedule:
It is used to record data obtained from documents.
4. Interview schedule:

This type of schedule is used by interviewer to gather

information from respondents.

5. Rating schedule:

The rating schedule is used to assess the attitudes,

opinions, preferences, other likes.
Merits of schedule

1. It is adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.

Obtain accurate and reliable information.
2. When there is very little response, the enumerators go personally
to

obtain the information.

 3. It is adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.

4. Obtain accurate and reliable information.

5. When there is very little response, the enumerators go

personally

to obtain the information.

Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

I. Published source

● Generally Published sources are international, national, GOVT, semi-GOVT, PVT,

corporate bodies, trade associations, etc...

1.Official publication of central and state GOVT

● Generally, state and central GOVT collected information regarding important

economic variables like national income, savings, investment, employment, etc....
and publish it after regular intervals.
 CHAPTER V RESEARCH REPORT

A report is a detailed description of what has been done and how it has
been done with respect to a particular area or topic. The purpose of the
written report is to present the results of your research. It is the end
product of a research activity.
Need For Research Report
 The aim of research is the search for knowledge.
 A research report is needed to evolve a theory or a principle.
 Reporting is a process through which a basic ground is prepared for
exchange of ideas
orthoughts.
 Reporting helps the researcher to make specific recommendation for
course of action.
 The research ability of a candidate is revealed through the final report
he
presents.
 A research report is highly useful for policy formulators, practitioners,
general public
andothers.
Functions of Research Report
 Research report serves as a means for presenting the problem
studied,
methods and techniques used, findings, conclusions and
recommendation in an organised manner.
 It serves as a reference material for future use in the same or related
area.
 It serves as a means for judging the quality of the research project.
 It is a means for evaluating research ability.
 It provides systematic knowledge on problems and issues analysed.
 TYPES OF REPORTS
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each
individual case, both the length and the form are largely dictated by
the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer reports in
the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance
organisations and financial institutions are generally fond of the
short
balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to their
customers and shareholders.
TYPES OF REPORTS
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case,
both the length and the form are largely dictated by the problems at
hand. For instance, business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just
one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and financial
institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of
tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders.
TYPES OF REPORTS
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case,
both the length and the form are largely dictated by the problems at
hand. For instance, business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just
one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and financial
institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of
tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders.
(B) Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal
use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many
subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another
characteristic feature of the popular report.
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under: 1. Name of author, last name first. 2. Title, underlined to indicate
italics. 3. Place, publisher, and date of publication. 4. Number of volumes. Example Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques,
New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under: 1. Name of the author, last name first. 2. Title of article, in
quotation marks. 3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics. 4. The volume or volume and number. 5. The date of
the issue. 6. The pagination. Example Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker,
London, September, 1971, p. 995.
 Report writing

Steps in Report Writing.

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate
inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are:
(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) (b) preparation of the final outline;
(c) (c) preparation of the rough draft;
(d) (d) rewriting and polishing;
(e) (c) preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f) (f) writing the final draft.
Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief
mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better
understanding.
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter:

It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development

of
a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject……..
(a) logically and
(b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of
mental connections and associations between the one thing and
another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in
developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex
structures. Chronological development is based on a connection or
sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making
something usually follow the chronological order.
2. Preparation of the final outline:

It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the
framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid
to the logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to
be stressed in the report.”
3. Preparation of the rough draft:

This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the
final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now
sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study.
He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material
for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the
various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft:

This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually
this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. While
rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in
logical development or presentation.
The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is
presented, has unity and cohesion. He should check the mechanics of
writing—grammar, spelling and usag
5. Preparation of the final bibliography:

Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography.
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is
a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been
done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has
consulted.

The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided

into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and
pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine
and newspaper articles.
The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:

1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.

Example Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New

Delhi,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For a Newspaper (Name of Paper, Place of edition, month, day,
Year)

Editorial, Thiruvananthapuram,The Hindu, May 16, 2010, 6.

Style of Listing – Websites/Electronic Sources • www.ksfe.com •
www.chitfund.org • www.gokulamchits.com
Style of Listing- Reports and other Official Publications
(Name of the Agency, Title of the publication, Place and Year) –

Examples.  Government of India, Annual Reports. (Various Issues),

Ministry of Health and FamilyWelfare, New Delhi
 Planning Commission, Report on General Hospital, New Delhi, 1964
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under: 1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks. 3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics. 4. The
volume or volume and number. 5. The date of the issue. 6. The pagination. Example Robert V.
Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker, London, September, 1971,
p. 995.
 6. Writing the final draft:
The final draft should be written in a concise and objective
style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as
“it
seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones.
While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract
terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on
common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they
happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to
others.

It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve

some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a
problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the
reader.