FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL

FORMING

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Metal Forming

 Large group of manufacturing processes in which

plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Material Properties in
Metal Forming
 Desirable mechanical properties:
 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Basic Types of
Metal Forming Processes
1. Bulk deformation
 Rolling processes
 Forging processes
 Extrusion processes
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
 Bending operations
 Deep or cup drawing
 Shearing processes

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Bulk Deformation Processes

 Characterized by significant deformations and

massive shape changes
 "Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively low surface
area‑to‑volume ratios
 Starting work shapes are usually simple geometries
 Cylindrical billets
 Rectangular bars

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Bulk Deformation Processes

(a) Rolling and (b) forging

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 Bulk Deformation Processes

(c) Extrusion and (d) wire and bar drawing

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Sheet Metalworking

 Forming and related operations performed on metal

sheets, strips, and coils
 High surface area‑to‑volume ratio of starting metal,
which distinguishes these from bulk deformation
 Often called pressworking because these operations
are performed on presses
 Parts are called stampings
 Usual tooling is called a punch and die

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Sheet Metalworking

(a) Bending and (b) deep drawing

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 Sheet Metalworking

(c) Shearing: (1) as punch first contacts sheet and (2) after
cutting

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Material Behavior in
Metal Forming
 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest
because material is plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:
 K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress and true strain

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Flow Stress

 For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required
to continue deforming the material
Yf K n

where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield

strength as a function of strain

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve equation

between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest
K n
Yf 
1 n
where Y f = average flow stress; and  = maximum
strain during deformation process

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Stress-Strain Relationship

Average flow stress Y f

in relation to
 Flow stress Yf
 Yield strength Y

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 Temperature in Metal Forming

 For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Temperature in Metal Forming

 At elevated temperature, any deformation process

can be accomplished with lower forces and power
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Cold Working

 Performed at room temperature or slightly above

 Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually required
 These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Advantages of Cold Forming

 Better accuracy, closer tolerances

 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
 No heating of work required

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming

 Higher forces and power required for deformation

 Starting work surfaces must be free of scale and dirt
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done
 In some cases, metal must be annealed before
further deformation can be accomplished
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough
to be cold worked

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Warm Working

 Performed at temperatures above room temperature

but below recrystallization temperature
 Dividing line between cold working and warm working
often expressed in terms of melting point:
 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Warm Working
 Advantages
 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
 Disadvantage
 Workpiece must be heated

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Hot Working

 Deformation at temperatures above the

recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of
melting point on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage
of hot working above this level

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Why Hot Working?

 Capability for substantial plastic deformation - far more

than possible by cold working or warm working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at
room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Advantages of Hot Working

 Work part shape can be significantly altered

 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be
hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
 No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Disadvantages of Hot Working

 Lower dimensional accuracy

 Higher total energy required, which is the sum of
 Thermal energy needed to heat the workpiece
 Energy to deform the metal
 Work surface oxidation (scale)
 Thus, poorer surface finish
 Shorter tool life
 Dies and rolls in bulk deformation

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Strain Rate Sensitivity

 Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a

perfectly plastic material, with strain hardening
exponent n = 0
 The metal should continue to flow at the same flow
stress, once that stress is reached
 However, an additional phenomenon occurs
during deformation, especially at elevated
temperatures:
 Strain rate sensitivity

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 What is Strain Rate?

 Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of

deformation v
 Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other
movement of the equipment
 Strain rate is defined:
v
 
h
where  = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Evaluation of Strain Rate

 In most practical operations, valuation of strain rate is

complicated by
 Work part geometry
 Variations in strain rate in different regions of the
part
 Strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for some
metal forming operations

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Effect of Strain Rate on
Flow Stress
 Flow stress is a function of temperature
 At hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on strain rate
 As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
 This is the effect known as strain‑rate sensitivity

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Strain Rate Sensitivity

(a) Effect of strain

rate on flow stress
at an elevated
work temperature
(b) Same
relationship
plotted on log‑log
coordinates

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Yf = Cε m

where Yf = flow stress; C = strength constant

(analogous but not equal to strength
coefficient in flow curve equation), and m =
strain‑rate sensitivity exponent

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Effect of Temperature on
Flow Stress
As temperature increases
 The strength constant C,
indicated by the intersection of
each plot with the vertical
dashed line at strain rate =
1.0, decreases
 And m (slope of each plot)
increases

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Observations about
Strain Rate Sensitivity
 At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost
negligible
 Flow curve alone is a good representation of
material behavior
 As temperature increases
 Strain rate becomes increasingly important in
determining flow stress

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Friction in Metal Forming

 In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable:
 Metal flow is reduced
 Forces and power are increased
 Tools wear faster
 Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e
 Lubrication in Metal Forming

 Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work

interface in many forming operations to reduce
harmful effects of friction
 Benefits:
 Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
 Better surface finish
 Removes heat from the tooling

©2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 7/e