1

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I
CENG 3206

Chapter Six
Intersection and
Interchanges

2015EC (2022/23) 2nd Sem

1
 Highway Engineering I
Chapter Six
Intersection and Interchanges

6.1 Introduction to
Intersection
6.2 Design Principles of At- 2015 E.C
Grade Intersections
6.3 Traffic Controls
 6.1. Intersection



Intersections are areas shared by two or more roads serving
conflicting traffic when competing for the same space at the same
time when going ahead or changing directions.
 Intersections vary in complexity from a simple to three or more
roads cross within the same area.
 The process of decision making for road users at intersections is
complex and this is part of the reason why intersections tend to
have a high potential for accidents and delays.
 The overall traffic flow on any highway depends to a great extent
on the performance of the intersections, since intersections usually
operate at a lower capacity than through sections of the road.

ASTU/Civil Engineering Dept. 3

 Types of Intersection
 At-grade

intersections: intersections which do not
provide for the flow of traffic at different levels, and
therefore there exist conflicts between intersecting
streams of traffic
 Grade-separated without ramp; E.g. Bypass and Under pass
 Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as
interchanges): consists of structures that provide for
traffic to cross at different levels (vertical distances)
without interruption. The potential for accidents at
grade-separated intersections is reduced because many
potential conflicts between intersecting streams of
traffic are eliminated.
ASTU/Civil Engineering Dept. 4
 1. At Grade of Intersection

 At Grade Intersections:
• Most highways intersect at grade, and
• the intersection area should be designed to provide
adequately for turning and crossing movements, with due
consideration to sight distance, signs, and alignments.
 The basic types of at-grade intersections are
• T, Y or three-leg intersections, which consist of three
approaches;
• four-leg or cross intersections, which consist of four
approaches; and
• multileg intersections.,

December 5, 2024 5
At grade Intersection

ASTU/SoCEA 6
ASTU/SoCEA 7
At grade Intersection


CONFLICT POINTS AT INTERSECTIONS
Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different
directions interfere with each other. The three types of conflicts
are;
 Merging,
 Diverging, and
 Crossing.
The number of possible conflict points at any intersection
depends on the number of approaches, the turning movements,
and the type of traffic control at the intersection.
ASTU/SoCEA 8
At grade Intersection

There are 32 conflict
points in this case.
o Merging conflict points –
8
x Diverging conflict points
–8
Crossing conflict points -
16 ASTU/SoCEA 9
 2. Grade Separations Intersection
 Grade Separations and Interchanges:
• Intersections at grade can be eliminated by the use of
grade-separation structures that permit the cross flow of
traffic at different levels without interruption.
 The advantage of such separation is the freedom from
cross interference with resultant saving of time and
increase in safety for traffic movements.
• Grade separations and interchanges may be warranted:
 As part of an express highway system designed to carry
high volumes of traffic,
 To eliminate bottlenecks,
 To prevent accidents,
 Where the topography is such that other types of design are
not feasible,
December 5, 2024 10
 Interchanges

An interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles moving in one
direction of flow may transfer by the use of connecting roadways. These

connecting roadways at interchanges are called ramps. Many types

and forms of interchanges and ramp layouts are used. The choice
between these intersection types depends on various factors such as
traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay, space requirements, etc.
Interchange is a system of interconnecting roadways in conjunction
with one or more grade separations that provide for the movement of
traffic between two or more roadways on different levels. 11

ASTU/SoCEA
Interchanges

Interchan
ge

System Service
Interchan Interchan
ge ge
ASTU/SoCEA 12
Interchanges

 System interchange is used to identify interchanges that
connect two or more freeways. System interchange
connections should be high speed and free-flow to provide
all directional movements.
 Service interchange applies to interchanges that connect
a freeway with local surface streets or arterials. Service
interchange ramps may be a low speed free flow, or may
require a stop condition at the connection to the local or
arterial street.

ASTU/SoCEA 13
 Interchange Types
Diamond Interchange ;
 uses less space than most types of
freeway interchange, and avoids the
interweaving traffic flows that occur in
interchanges such as the cloverleaf.
 Also it is easy to navigate, eliminates
last-minute lane changes, and provides
better sight distance at turns, resulting in
fewer crashes.
 The design reduces congestion and better
moves high volumes of traffic without
the need to increase the number of lanes
in an interchange.
 It is applicable in both rural and
urban areas, and
 they are particularly adaptable
to major crossings where left
turns at grade on the minor
roads are fitting and can be
handled with minimal
interference to traffic
14
approaching the intersection ASTU/SoCEA
from either direction.
 Interchange Types

Cloverleaf Interchange;
 The objective of a cloverleaf
is to allow two highways to cross
without the need for any traffic
to be stopped by traffic lights.
 The limiting factor in the
capacity of a cloverleaf
interchange is traffic weaving.
 The principal disadvantages of
the cloverleaf are the additional
travel distance for the left-
turning traffic, the weaving
maneuver generated, the very
short weaving length available,
and the relatively large right of
way area needed.
15
ASTU/SoCEA
Interchange Types

Trumpet interchange:
 The trumpet
interchange have
been used when one
highway terminates
at another highway.
 It takes the place of a
T-intersection which
is often used when a
roadway ends at the
intersection of
another roadway.

ASTU/SoCEA 16
6.2 Design Principles of At-Grade

 The fundamental objectives in the design of at-grade intersections are to

minimize delay and the number and severity of potential conflicts among

different streams of traffic and between pedestrian and turning vehicles.

 The design should therefore incorporate the operating characteristics of both

the vehicles and pedestrians using the intersection.

 For example, the corner radius of an intersection pavement or surfacing should

not be less than either the turning radius of the design vehicle or the radius

required for design velocity of the turning roadway under consideration. The

design also should ensure adequate pavement widths of turning roadways and

approach sight distances. 17

December 5, 2024
6.2 Design Principles of At-Grade


 This suggests that at-grade intersections should not be located at or just
beyond sharp crest vertical curves or at sharp horizontal curves.
 The basic requirements of intersection design are maximize safety and
minimize traffic delay.

 Generally, the design of at-grade intersection involves:

 The design of the alignment including profiles, minimum radius and

widths of turning roadways,
 The design of a suitable channelling system for the traffic pattern,
 The assurance that the sight distances
. are adequate for the type of 18
control at the intersection.
 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections:
 The best alignment for an at-grade intersection
is when the intersecting roads meet at right or
nearly right angles.

 This is because much less road area is required

for turning at the intersection, there is a lower
exposure, time for vehicles crossing the main
traffic flow, and visibility limitations,
particularly for trucks, are not as serious as
those at acute-angle intersections.

 In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at

the intersection, large changes in grade should
be avoided; preferably, grades should not be
greater than 3 percept. When it is unavoidable to
use grades of 3 percept or more, design factors
such as stopping distances and accelerating
distances should be adjusted so that conditions
equivalent to those on level ground exist. In any
case, it is not advisable to use grades higher than
6 percept at intersections.
19

December 5, 2024
 Cont…
 It should always be remembered that the combination of horizontal and vertical
alignments at an intersection should produce traffic lanes that are clearly seen
by motorists at all times, without the sudden appearance of potential hazards.

 The angle of turn, the turning speed, the design vehicle, and traffic volume are
the main factors governing the design of curves at at-grade intersections.

 When the turning speed at an intersection is assumed to be 25 km/h or less, the

curves for the pavement edges are designed to conform to at least the minimum
turning path of the design vehicle. When the turning speed is expected to be
greater than 25 km/h. It is also necessary to increase the pavement width of
turning roadways when the speed is greater than 25 km/h.
20
December 5, 2024
 CHANNELISATION OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS:

AASHTO defines channelization as the separation of conflicting traffic movements into

definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.
 A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes where vehicular traffic is excluded
and provided to regulate the movement of vehicles or to serve as a pedestrian refuge.
 A properly channelized intersection will result in increased capacity, enhanced safety,
and increased driver confidence. .
 Properly designed channelization systems increase intersection capacity and decrease
conflicts and accidents.
 Islands in an intersection serve one or more of the following purposes:
 Separation of conflicts
 Control of angle of conflict
 Reduction of excessive pavement areas
 Regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area
 Arrangements to favour a predominant turning movement
 Protection of pedestrians
 Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
 Location of traffic control devices.
21

December 5, 2024
 Cont…
 Islands are generally grouped into three
major classes:
› directional or channelised: designed
primarily to guide the motorist through the
intersection by indicating the intended
route.
› Divisional : A divisional island is a raised
median or island that is placed in the
middle of a multi-lane highway to separate
opposing lanes of traffic and reduce the risk
of head-on collisions. Divisional islands are
typically used on multi-lane highways with
high traffic volumes, where the risk of
collisions is greater.
› Refuge: located at or near crosswalks to aid
and protect pedestrians crossing the
roadway. Refuge islands are most generally
used on wide streets in urban areas for
loading and unloading of transit riders .

22
December 5, 2024
CHANNELISATION OF AT-GRADE
INTERSECTIONS:


Channelization is the separation or regulation of
conflicting traffic movements into definite paths
of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings
to facilitate the orderly movement of both
vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization
increases capacity, provides maximum
convenience, and instils driver confidence.
ASTU/SoCEA 23
CHANNELISATION OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS:


Channelization of intersections is considered for one or
more of the following factors:
 To confine paths of vehicles
 To control the angle and locations of merge, diverge or
cross conflicts
 To give priority for the predominant movement
 To give area of refugee for pedestrians
 To provide space for installing traffic control devices
where they can be clearly seen
 To control prohibited turns
 To restrict the speed of vehicles to some extent

ASTU/SoCEA 24
ASTU/SoCEA 25
 Sight Distance at Intersections:
 The high accident potential at an intersection can
be reduced by providing sight distances that
allow drivers to have an unobstructed view of the
entire intersection at a distance great enough to
permit control of the vehicle.
 At-grade intersections either have no control or
are controlled by one of the following methods:
yield control, stop control, or signal control.
 At signalised intersections, the unobstructed
view may be limited to the area where the signals
are located, but for un-signalised intersections, it
is necessary to provide an adequate view of the
crossroads or intersecting highways to reduce the
potential of collision with crossing vehicles.
 As shown in the schematic sight triangle, the safe
stopping sight distance for the give design speed
should be used for da and db. It can be seen from
that triangle ABC and ADE are similar, which
gives:
db a

da da  b
26
 From this equation, if any of the variables da, db,
a, and b are known the fourth can be determined.
 Sight Distance Requirements
Sight Distance Requirements for No-Control Intersections: -
 In this situation the intersection is not controlled by a yield sign, a stop
sign, or a traffic signal, but sufficient sight distance is provided for the
operator of a vehicle approaching the intersection to see a crossing
vehicle and if necessary to adjust the vehicle's speed so as to avoid a
collision..
Sight Distance Requirements for Yield-Control Intersections: -
 intersection at which one or more drivers is legally required to yield the
right-of-way to another driver on which yield signs have been posted.

December 5, 2024 27
 Cont…
Sight Distance Requirement for Stop-Control Intersections: - When vehicles are required to stop at an
intersection, for a safe departure from the stopped position for the three basic manoeuvres that occur at an
average intersection. These manoeuvres are:
› Crossing the intersection, thereby clearing traffic approaching from both sides of the
intersection,
› Turning left onto the crossroad, which requires clearing the traffic approaching from the left
and then joining the traffic stream on the crossroad with vehicles approaching from the right,
and
› Turning right onto the crossroad by joining the traffic on the crossroad with vehicles
approaching from the left.
Sight Distance at Intersections with Signal Control: - Although the unobstructed view at signalised
intersections may be limited to the area of control, it is recommended that the minimum sight distances
based on sight distance requirement for stop-control intersections be made available at these
intersections.
28
INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance requirements at-grade intersections
are based upon the following three different cases
of intersection control:
Level I – Basic Rules of the Road or No-Control
Intersections

Level II – Direct assignment of right-of-way

using YIELD or STOP signs

Level III – Traffic Signalization 29

Level I – Basic Rules of the Road

• Apply at any intersection where right-of-way is not
explicitly assigned through the use of traffic signals,
STOP, or YIELD signs.
• Its often specified that through vehicles have the right-of-
way over turning vehicles at uncontrolled intersections.
• Drivers on conflicting approaches must be able to see
each other in time to assess whether an “impending
hazard” is imposed, and to take appropriate action to
avoid an accident.
ASTU/SoCEA 30
ASTU/SoCEA 31
No-Control Intersections cont…

AASHTO suggests that, to ensure safe operation with no
control, both drivers should be able to stop before reaching
the collision point when they first see each other.

In other words, dA and dB should be equal to or greater than

the safe stopping distance at the points where visibility is
established.

ASTU/SoCEA 32
No-Control Intersections cont…

From similarity of triangles;


db a

da da  b
Where:
dA = Distance from vehicle A to the collision point, ft.
dB = Distance from vehicle B to the collision point, ft.
a = Distance from driver position in vehicle A to the sight
obstruction, measured parallel to the path of vehicle B, ft.
b = Distance from driver position in vehicle B to the sight
obstruction, measured parallel to the path of vehicle A, ft.
ASTU/SoCEA 33
No-Control Intersections cont…

Rule-1: Safe stopping distance:

Where:
ds= safe stopping distance, ft
Si = initial speed of vehicle, mi/hr
G=grade,%
t =reaction time, s
0.348 = standard friction factor for stopping maneuvers.

ASTU/SoCEA 34
No-Control Intersections cont…

Rule-2

Vehicle A must travel 18 feet past the collision point in the
same time that vehicle B travels to a point 12 feet before the
collision point.

ASTU/SoCEA 35
 Example:


.

ASTU/SoCEA 36
No-Control Intersections cont…

it is assumed that Vehicle A is one safe stopping distance from the collision
point.
STEP – 1
= 196.5 ft.
STEP -2
= = 25.4ft.
Step -3
= 300.3 ft.
12 = 298.0 ft.
dB, act <<dB, min - - - - - - - - - Both rules are
violated!
ASTU/SoCEA 37
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

Stop or yield signs should be used at an intersection if one or
more of the following conditions exist:
A. An intersection of a less important road with a main road
where application of the normal right-of-way rule would
not be expected to provide reasonable compliance with
the law:
B. A street entering a designated through highway: and/or
C. An un-signalized intersection within a signalized area.

ASTU/SoCEA 38
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

YIELD Control

STOP Control

ASTU/SoCEA 39
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

Site distance criteria for STOP-controlled intersections (AASHTO)
The methodology is based upon observed gap acceptance behavior of
drivers at STOP controlled intersections.
The distance to the collision point dA has three components:
Distance from the driver’s eye to the front of the vehicle (assumed to
be 8 ft)
Distance from the front of the vehicle to the curb line (assumed to be
10 ft)
Distance from the curb line to the center of the right-most travel lane
approaching from the left or from the curb line to the left-most travel
lane approaching from the right (dcl)

ASTU/SoCEA 40
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

dA-STOP = 18 + dcl

Where:

dA-STOP = distance of vehicle A on a STOP-Controlled

approach from the collision point, ft.

dcl = distance from the curb line to the center of the closest
travel lane from the direction under consideration, ft.
ASTU/SoCEA 41
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

dB-min = 1.47 * Smaj * tg

Where:

dB-min = minimum sight distance for vehicle B approaching on

major( uncontrolled) street, ft.

Smaj = design speed of major street, mi/hr.

tg = average gap accepted by minor street driver to enter the major road,
sec. (ranges 6.5 sec to 12.5 sec, AASHTO recommends 7.5 sec for
left turn movements.)
ASTU/SoCEA 42
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

Example: Speed of V =40mph
B

ASTU/SoCEA 43
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control

Solution:

dA-STOP (from left) = 18 .0+ 8.0 = 26.0 ft.
dA-STOP (from right)= 18.0 + 18.0 = 36.0 ft.
The minimum sight distance requirement for vehicle B is
determined:
dB, min = 1.47*40*7.5 = 441 ft.
Now, the actual distance of vehicle B from the collision point
when visibility is established is determined as:
dB, act(from left)=
dB, act(from right)=
ASTU/SoCEA 44
 Level III – Traffic Signalization



One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic
at an intersection.
 Can be used to eliminate many conflicts because
different traffic streams can be assigned the use of the
intersection at different times.
 Most important factor that determines the need for
traffic signals:
 Intersection‘s approach traffic volume and
accident experience. 45

ASTU/SoCEA
 Level III – Traffic Signalization…Con’t
 The primary objective in the design of a traffic control
system at an intersection is to reduce the number of
significant conflict points.
sig le-
n al
g
h w sin
tro roac tion
ith
con e app ersec
t
lan g in
e

l
4 -l

46 ASTU/Civil Engineering Dept.

 Level III – Traffic Signalization
 The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to
drivers, and thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring the
orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways,
 control may be achieved by using traffic signals, signs, or
markings that regulate, guide, warn, and/or channel traffic.
sign -
le
al
sing
cont approac tion
h no
c
lane interse
4-leg

rol

47 ASTU/Civil Engineering Dept.

 6.3 Intersection Control

 Traffic control device is the medium used for
communicating between traffic engineer and road users.
 Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control
on the drivers using the road.
 Here traffic control devices come to the help of the
traffic engineer.
 The major types of traffic control devices used are:
 Traffic Signs,
 Road Markings,
 Traffic Signals
48
ASTU/Civil Engineering Dept.
 Traffic Signal

 Control devices which alternately direct traffic to stop
and proceed at intersection using red, green and amber
light signal

ASTU/SoCEA 49
Advantages of Signal


ASTU/SoCEA 50
 Disadvantages- Traffic signal

 Rear end collision may increase


 Excessive delay to vehicle may caused in off

peak hour
 Failure of signal due to electric power failure

or any other cause- confusion to road users

 Improper design and location of signals
lead to
violation of control system

51
ASTU/SoCEA
 Warrants for Traffic signal

• A warrant for any traffic control device (sign, signal or pavement marking) is
the minimum criteria that must be met before such a device can be installed.
• Traffic signal should not be installed unless one or more of the following
signal warrants are met

▪ Minimum vehicular volume

▪ Interruption of continuous traffic
▪ Minimum pedestrian volume
▪ Accident Experience
52
▪ Combination of Warrants
 Types of traffic signal

Type of traffic signals:


 Fixed time signals:
 Pre-timed signals are set to repeat regularly a cycle of red , yellow
(amber) and green lights.
 Vehicle actuated signals:
 Signals in which the green periods vary and related to the actual
demands by traffic.
 Semi-vehicle actuated signals:
 The right of way rests with the main road and detectors are located
only on minor roads. OR
 The main street signals remain green until a call for service is
placed by the side-street detectors
ASTU/SoCEA 53
 Traffic control signal

 Have three coloured light facing each direction
of traffic flow
 Red light- STOP
 Green light- GO or PROCEED
 Amber or yellow- CLEARNCE TIME or
 A STEADY YELLOW LIGHT tells you a
steady red light will soon appear. If you are
driving toward an intersection and a yellow
light appears, slow down and prepare to stop.
If you are within the intersection or cannot stop
safely before entering the intersection,
continue through carefully.
54
 Terminologies in Traffic Signal

Cycle: One complete rotation through all of the indications provided.

Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to

complete one full cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval

between the starting of of green for one approach till the next time the

green starts. It is denoted by C

ASTU/SoCEA 55
 Terminologies in Traffic Signal

Green Time (G) or Green Interval -The amount of time for which a movement receives

a green indication.

Yellow Time (Y) -The amount of time for which a movement receives a Yellow

indication. (Change Interval)

Red Time (R) -The amount of time for which a movement receives a Red indication.

All Red Interval (AR) : All red interval the display time of a red indication for all
approaches. (for wide intersection and for pedestrian crossing)

ASTU/SoCEA 56
 Terminologies in Traffic Signal

Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not
effectively utilized for any movement.

Change interval is also called the yellow time indicates the interval
between the green and red signal indications for an approach

Clearance interval is also called all red is included after each

yellow interval indicating a period during which all signal faces show red
and is used for clearing off the vehicles in the intersection

57
ASTU/SoCEA
 Terminologies in Traffic Signal

 Phase:
 A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance
intervals that follow it. Thus, during green interval, non
conflicting movements are assigned into each phase.
 It allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the
flow before the phase of another set of movements start.

ASTU/SoCEA 58
 Phase design

 The signal design procedure involves six major steps.
They include:
 (1) phase design,
 (2) determination of amber time and clearance time,
 (3) determination of cycle length,
 (4) apportioning of green time,
 (5) pedestrian crossing requirements, and
 (6) performance evaluation of the design obtained in the
previous steps.

ASTU/SoCEA 59
 Phase design

 The objective of phase design is to separate the conflicting
movements in an intersection into various phases, so that
movements in a phase should have no conflicts.
 If all the movements are to be separated with no conflicts,
then a large number of phases are required. In such a
situation, the objective is to design phases with minimum
conflicts or with less severe conflicts.

ASTU/SoCEA 60
 Phase design

 There is no precise methodology for the design of phases.
This is often guided by
 the geometry of the intersection,
 the flow pattern especially the turning movements, and
 the relative magnitudes of flow.

Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted.

ASTU/SoCEA 61
 Phase design

 To illustrate various phase plan options,
consider a four legged intersection with
through traffic and right turns where Left turn
is ignored.

 Fig-1
 The first issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is 62

possible to have two, three, four or even more number of phases.

 Phase design

Option-1
Two phase signals
 Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is
significant compared to the turning movements.
 For example in Figure 1, non-conflicting through traffic 3
and 4 are grouped in a single phase and non-conflicting
through traffic 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase.

ASTU/SoCEA 63
Phase design


ASTU/SoCEA 64
 Phase design

Option-2
 B
Four phase signals

65
 Phase design

 Option A: This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban
areas where the turning movements are comparable with
through movements and when through traffic and turning
traffic need to share same lane. This phase plan could be
very inefficient when turning movements are relatively low.
 Option B: This type of phasing is very efficient when the
intersection geometry permits to have at least one lane for
each movement, and the through traffic volume is
significantly high.
 Option C: This is rarely used in practice.
66
 Traffic Signals

 One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an intersection
is the use of traffic signals.
 Traffic signals can be used to eliminate many conflicts because
different traffic streams can be assigned the use of the intersection at
different times.
 Since this results in a delay to vehicles in all streams, it is important
that traffic signals be used only when necessary.
 The most important factor that determines the need for traffic signals
at a particular intersection is the
 Intersection's approach traffic volume,
 pedestrian volume and
 Accident experience may also play a significant role.
ASTU/SoCEA 67
 Traffic Signals

 The efficient operation of the signal requires proper timing
of the different color indication, which is obtained by
implementing the necessary signal timing design.
 The main objectives of signal timing at an intersection are
to reduce the average delay of all vehicles and the
probability of accidents. These objectives are achieved by
minimizing the possible conflict points when assigning the
right of way to different traffic streams at different times.

ASTU/SoCEA 68
 Traffic Signals

 Several methods have been developed for determining the
optimal cycle length at an intersection and, in most cases,
the yellow interval is considered as a component of the
green time.
 The figure below shows a typical two-phase signal system
to illustrate the terminologies commonly used in the
design of signal times.

ASTU/SoCEA 69
Traffic Signals


70
 Traffic Signals

 Yellow interval: - The main purpose of the yellow indication
after the green is to alert motorists to the fact that the green
light is about to change to red and to allow vehicles already in
the intersection to cross it.
 A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of a
dilemma zone, an area close to an intersection in which a vehicle
can neither stop safely before the intersection nor clear the
intersection without speeding before the red signal comes on.
 The required yellow interval is the time period that guarantees
that approaching vehicles can either stop safely or proceed
through the intersection without speeding.
ASTU/SoCEA 71
 Traffic Signals

 The yellow interval, which eliminates the dilemma zone, is estimated from
the following equations:

72
 Traffic Signals

 Cycle Lengths: - The signals at isolated intersections can
be pre-timed (fixed), semi-actuated, or fully actuated. Pre-
timed signals assign the right of way to different traffic
streams in accordance with a preset timing program.
 Each signal has a preset cycle length that remains fixed for a
specific period of the day or for the entire day. Several
design methods have been developed to determine the
optimum cycle length, two of which the Webster method is
presented here.

ASTU/SoCEA 73
 Traffic Signals

Webster Method

 where,
 C , = optimum cycle length (sec)
0

 L = total lost time per cycle (sec)

 Y = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to
i

saturation flows for all traffic streams using phase i (i.e., Vij/ Sj)
 Vij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase
 Sj = saturation flow on lane i
ASTU/SoCEA 74
 Traffic Signals

 Total Lost Time:  Initially, some time is lost

before the vehicles start
moving, and then the rate of
discharge increases to a
maximum.
 This maximum rate of
discharge is the saturation flow.
If there are sufficient vehicles
in the queue to use the available
green time, the maximum rate
of discharge will be sustained
until the yellow phase occurs.
 The rate of discharge will then
fall to zero when the yellow
signal changes to red.
75
 Traffic Signals

 Upon receiving a green indication, it takes a few seconds for the
driver of the first vehicle to recognize that the signal has turned
green and to get the vehicle in motion. The next few vehicles also
take some time to accelerate. This is defined as the start-up lost time
or start-up delay and is commonly assumed to be approximately 2 or
2.5 seconds
 The usable amount of green time, that is, the duration of time
between the end of the start-up delay and the end of the yellow
extension, is referred to as the effective green time for the
movement.
 The unused portion of the yellow change interval and red clearance
interval is called clearance lost time.
ASTU/SoCEA 76
Traffic Signals


77
Traffic Signals


78
Traffic Signals


79
 Example 1

A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection having four
arms. The design hour traffic and saturation flow are
North South East West

Design hour 800 400 750 600

flow PCU/hr
Saturation 2400 2000 3000 3000
flow PCU/hr

Time lost per phase due to starting delay is 2 sec and All red riod is 4
pe sec. Design two phase traffic signal using Webster‟s aw the
method. Dr phase diagram also
76

ASTU/SoCEA 80
Solution


ASTU/SoCEA 81
 Solution

The maximum value of critical flow ratio (y) in N-S direction = 0.33

The maximum value of critical flow ratio (y) in E-W direction = 0.25

Total critical ratio

Y= yNS + yEW = 0.33+0.25 = 0.58

Total lost time per cycle in second L= 2n+R = (2 x 2) + 4 = 8 seconds

ASTU/SoCEA 82
 Solution
Optimum cycle time,
C =
𝟏.𝟓𝑳+
𝟓

= (𝟏.𝟓 𝒙 𝟖)+𝟓
𝟏−𝟎.𝟓𝟖
= 40 seconds
Effective green time per cycle = C0 –L
= 40– 8 = 32seconds
Effective Green time is given by

ASTU/SoCEA 83
Solution


ASTU/SoCEA 84
 Example 2

 The figure below shows peak-hour volumes for a major
intersection on an arterial highway. Using the Webster
method, determine suitable signal timing for the
intersection using a four-phase system and the additional
data given in the figure. Use a yellow interval of 3 sec.

ASTU/SoCEA 85
Example 2


86
Solution


ASTU/SoCEA 87
Solution


ASTU/SoCEA 88
Solution


ASTU/SoCEA 89
 Solution

Then; Determine the optimum cycle length:

ASTU/SoCEA 90
 Solution

Effective time for phase i is obtained from:

ASTU/SoCEA 91
Solution


92
ASTU/SoCEA 93