CETB 4013/412

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING

INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES & CONTROL

Chapter

INTERSECTION DESIGN
PRINCIPLES &
CONTROL
Intersection Design

• Intersection
o Location at which 2 or more roads meet or cross each
other.

• General Type of Intersection:

o At-grade intersection
o Grade-separated without ramps
o Grade-separated with ramps (interchange)
Type of At-grade Intersection
▪ Three-Leg Intersection
▪ Four-Leg Intersection
▪ Multileg Intersection

Common Pattern
▪ T-junction
▪ Y Junction
▪ Scissor Junction
▪ Cross Junction
▪ Staggered Junction
▪ Staggered and slanted junction
▪ Multiple junction
At-grade Intersection

Three-Leg Intersection
At-grade Intersection

Four-Leg Intersection
At-grade Intersection

MultiLeg Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
• Type of separation structure
o General
o Overpass
o Underpass
• Type of interchange
o 3 leg design
o 4 leg design
▪ Ramps in one quadrant
▪ Diamond interchange
▪ Partial cloverleaf
▪ Full cloverleaf
o Directional & semi-directional design
o Rotary design
o combination
Grade Separated Intersection
Grade Separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection
Grade-separated Intersection

TRUMPET INTERCHANGE
Grade-separated Intersection
Design Consideration
Objective:
❑ Improve traffic flow
o Reduce the severity potential conflicts between
vehicles (including pedestrians) while
o Provide max convenience and ease movement to
vehicles
Interchange Consideration:
o Type and design are influenced by highway
classification, character and composition of traffic,
design speed and degree of access
o Since they are high cost facilities, and wide variety of
site condition, traffic volumes, and layout - Warrants
justify for an interchange may differ at each location
Design Consideration
Warrant for Interchange:
❑ As part of an express highway system designated to carry
volumes of traffic
❑ To eliminate bottleneck
❑ To prevent accidents
❑ Where the topography is such that other types of design
are not feasible
❑ Where the volume to be catered not suitable for the design
of intersection at-grade
❑ Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-
grade intersection exceeds the cost of improvement
Design Consideration
At Grade Intersection
1. Traffic factors:
o An intersection should accommodate with comfort
and safety at design peak traffic volume.
o Consideration should also be given to operating
speeds and turning path requirements, the type of
traffic control, the needs of pedestrians and buses,
and safety aspects.
2. Topography and Environment Factors:
o The alignment and grade of the approaches
o The need to provide for drainage
o The extent of interference with public utilities
o Proper access
o The presence of local features, both man-made and
natural
Design Consideration
3. Economic Factors:
o Any changes to existing intersection should be
justified by providing benefits to traffic flow and the
road users.
o Cost (initial and maintenance)
o Energy consumption
4. Human Factors:
o Driver characteristics must be considered, ie.:
▪ Drivers tend to act according to habit
▪ Drivers tend to follow ‘natural path’ of traffic
movements
▪ Drivers may become confused when surprised
Design Principles – At grade Intersection

• Horizontal Alignment
o The desirable intersection angle between 2 road is
between 70⁰ and 90⁰
▪ if angle less than 70⁰, alignment of minor road
should be modified.
• Vertical Alignment
o The desirable to avoid substantial grade changes at
intersection
▪ avoid grade greater than 3%
Design Principles – At grade Intersection
• Sight Distance
o Control intersections
▪ Have sufficient unobstructed view to recognize
traffic sign/signal
▪ Sufficient sight distance to make a safe departure
from the stop position – sufficient for the driver to
see a vehicle approaching from left or right
o No control intersections
▪ Sight distance should include the distance traveled
by vehicle both during
perception-reaction time
and during brake actuation
Suggested lengths and adjustments of sight triangle Leg for no
traffic control (source Nicholas J Garber, 2015)
Design speed (mi/h) Length of Leg (ft)
15 70
20 90
25 115
30 140
35 165
40 195
45 220
50 245
55 285
60 325
65 365
70 405
75 445
80 485
Conflict Points At Intersections
• Conflicts
o When merging, diverging and crossing maneuvers occur,
there is potential conflict between 2 or more road users.
o Factors which influence conflicts at an intersection:
▪ Number of approaches at the intersection
▪ Number of lanes on each approach
▪ Type of signal control
▪ The extent of channelization
▪ The movements permitted
o Type of conflicts
Conflict Points At Intersections
• Example of conflicts:
 Traffic Control
• Objective
o Assign the right of way to drivers thus
o Facilitate highway safety and efficiency by ensuring the orderly and
predictable movements of all users of roadway system
• Device include signs, movable barriers, signals, or marking
o That regulate, guide, warn, and/or channel traffic
• Traffic control device must (Manual of Uniform Traffic Control
Device -MUTCD)
o Fulfill a need
o Command attention
o Convey a clear, simple meaning
o Give adequate time for proper response
• Sign should be Proper design, Placed properly and
appropriately, Operated consistently, Maintained routinely,
and Uniformity in application
Traffic Control
Traffic sign fall into four broad areas of functional
classification according to use
• Regulatory signs – used to impose legal restrictions
applicable to particular location
o Right of way (i.e. stop and yield sign)
o Speed sign
o Movement sign (i.e. turning or one way signs)
o Parking signs
• Warning signs – used to call attention to hazardous
conditions, actual or potential
• Guide or informational signs – provide directions to drivers
and to various destination
• Directional signs
Type of Intersection Controls
• Yield Signs
• Stop Signs
• Multiway Stop Signs
• Intersection Channelization
• Rotaries and Roundabout
• Traffic Signal
Priority Intersection
Flared Intersection

• A flared intersection is
a simple
unchannelized
intersection with
additional through
lanes or auxiliary
lanes such as speed-
change or right turn
lanes.
Channelized Intersections

• Definition:
• Separation of conflicting traffic movement into definite paths of
travel by traffic island or pavement marking
• Purpose:
• To diminish the number of vehicle conflicts by reducing the possible
carriageway area of conflict
• To control the angle of vehicle conflict
• To reduce the speed of traffic entering the intersection
• To regulate traffic movement by island location & shape
• To provide protection for vehicle leaving or crossing the main stream
Traffic Islands

• Functions:
• To separate conflicts
• To control the angle of conflicts
• To reduce excessive pavement areas
• To regulate traffic flow in the intersection area
• To make arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
• To protect pedestrians
• To protect and store turning and crossing vehicles
• To provide space for installation of traffic control devices
 Roundabout

• Roundabouts are intersections at

which traffic enters a one-way
stream around the central island.
• Roundabouts are a safe and
efficient form of traffic control.
• Roundabout operation and safety
is sensitive to geometric design
elements.
• It can achieve accident reductions
of between 50-90 percent when
compared to stop-controlled or
signalized intersections.
• Accident severity is also greatly
reduced.
Selection of Intersection Type
Selection of Intersection Type
Traffic Signals
• Purpose
o To improve overall safety
o To decrease average travel time through an
intersection, and consequently increase capacity
o To equalize the quality of service for all or most
traffic streams
Traffic Signals - Advantages
• Improve safety & efficiency movement
• Maintain orderly flow of traffic
• Reduce accident by minimize number of
conflicting movements
• Provide nearly continuously movement of traffic –
reduce delay
• More economical than manual control
• Stop heavy traffic to allow slow moving traffic
• Provide driver confidence by assigning right of
way
Traffic Signals - Disadvantages
• Increase total intersection delay especially during
off peak hour
• Probably increase certain type of accidents (i.e.
rear-end)
• Interrupt the progressive flow of traffic on a route
causing increase delay and stopping
• Required electricity supply
• Cause delay for intersection with multileg
• If improper timely will cause excessive delay
• If improperly located will cause unnecessary delay
and promote disrespect for this type of control
(i.e. location with less conflict among different
stream of traffic and between pedestrian and
turning traffic)
Traffic Signals - Warrants
❑ Intersection approach of traffic volume volume
• should meet the minimum requirement as per guidelines in JKR
• for each of any 8 hours of an average day, traffic volume on major road = 600
veh/hr, minor road = 150 veh/hr
❑ Speed limit
• 85th percentile speed or posted speed limit on major street > 65 km/hr
❑ Pedestrian volume
• minimum 150 pedestrian per hour crossing the major road on an average day
❑ Location of nearest traffic signal
• Minimum distance required is 90 m
❑ School Crossing
• at least 20 students during the highest crossing hour
❑ Accident experience
• 5 or more reported accidents in a year
Traffic Signals – Type & Method

Type
• Pretimed Signal (Fix Timed Signal)
• Actuated Signal

Method
• Homburger and Kell’s Method
• Pignataro’s method
• Webster method
Traffic Signal Design
• Traffic signals operate by assigning the right of way
successively to intersection approaches.
• The red, yellow, or green light that is displayed to drivers in
a given movement is called an indication.
• Installation of traffic signal on a certain intersection only can
be made by following the conditions from public work
department [Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87 (JKR, 1987)].
Traffic Signals Design - Terminology
Approach A lane or group of lanes through which traffic enters the intersection
Cycle One complete sequence of signal indication
Cycle Time, c Total time for signal to complete one sequence of signal indication
cycle
Interval Period of time during all signal indications remain constant
Green Time Time within a cycle has green indication
Lost Time Time during which the intersection is not effectively used by any
approach
Effective Green Time that is effectively available to the permitted traffic movement
Effective Red Time which traffic movement is effectively not permitted to move
Saturation Flow, S Max. flow that could pass through an intersection
Lane Capacity, C Max. flow that pass through an intersection under prevailing
roadway
Traffic Phase Part of cycle time allocated to any traffic movement right of way
Intergreen Period Time between end of green of the phase losing the right of way &
beginning of green of phase gaining right of way
• Phase
• 2 phase:

• 4 phase:
 SIGNAL TIMING DESIGN
Determination of Saturation Flow, S

i. If effective approach width,

W ≥ 5.5 m
S = 525 W (pcu/hr)

ii. If effective approach width,

W < 5.5 m
S = taken from table below:

W(m) 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5 4.75 5.0 5.25
S (pcu/hr) 1845 1860 1885 1915 1965 2075 2210 2375 2560 2760
Conversion factors to pcu for traffic signal

Vehicle Type Equivalent pcu value

Passenger Cars 1.0
Motor cycles 0.33
Light vans / small lorries 1.75
Medium lorries 1.75
Heavy lorries 2.25
Buses 2.25
Determination of Optimum Cycle Time, Co
From Webster & Cobbe

*Practical purposes: 45sec < Co < 120sec

Determination of Signal Setting
Total Effective green time

Calculation of Effective Green Time

= total effective green time per cycle (in sec)

= effective green time for phase i (in sec.)
yi = calculated Y-value of the same signal phase
Calculation of Actual Green Time

Calculation of Controller Setting Time

or

Pedestrian requirement for Green Time

= actual green time for phase i

= controller setting time for phase i
= pedestrian green time
W = width of road
EXAMPLE
Example 1
A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at a right angle crossing of
two city streets. The roads are straight and level. The design hour flows
from the various arms and the saturation flow, S for these arms are given
in the following table

North South East West

Design flow, q (pcu/hr) 800 400 750 1000

Saturation Flow, S (pcu/hr) 2400 2000 3000 3000

Calculate the optimum cycle time and green time for the minimum overall
delay. Time lost per phase due to starting delays can be assumed to be 2
seconds. All red period of 4 seconds to be provided after each phase to
allow clearance of right turning vehicle left over in the crossing. Amber
time is 3 seconds.
Calculate also the controller setting.
Example 2
Given 3 phase signal – 2 vehicle movement + 1 pedestrian
Starting delay = 2 sec
All red interval = 4 sec
Amber time = 3 sec
Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2 m/s
Lane width (uniform to all approaches) = 5.5m
Median width = 1 m
Calculate optimum cycle time and setting controller. Sketch the phase and
draw the time-aspect diagram.
From N S E W
To E S W W N E S W N N E S
q (pcu/hr) 40 800 80 60 660 60 80 500 52 70 680 60
Example 3
The flows and saturation flows at 2-phase signaled controlled intersection
are as indicated below;

North South East West

Design flow, q (pcu/hr) 573 624 502 563

Saturation flow, S (pcu/hr) 1885 1775 2050 2125

The starting delay is 2.0 sec. The intergreen periods for N-S is 6 sec
and E-W is 10 sec. Assume the amber time is 3 sec.
Determine the optimum cycle time and the controller setting time.
Example 4
The morning peak hour flows obtained from an four arm intersection is shown below

Design a 3-phase fixed time traffic signal at the intersection by assuming

Intergreen period= 5 sec
Amber time = 3 sec
Driver reaction time at the beginning of green = 2 sec
Saturation flow for each approach 1900 pcu/hr
Average pcu factor = 1.50
 Example 5
Junction layout and survey data of an intersection is as below;
W=4.0 m
W=3.75 m

W=3.75 m

W=4.0 m

Design a fixed time traffic signal at the intersection by assuming

Driver reaction time at the beginning of green = 2 sec
All red interval = 4 sec
Amber time = 3 sec
Determine green time for pedestrian
 References
■ Nicholas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel (2015);
Traffic and Highway Engineering, 5th Edition,
PWS Publishing.
■ JKR: A Guide to Design of At-Grade
Intersections. Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 11/87
■ JKR: A Guide to the Design of Traffic Signals.
Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87