MODULE 1 –

CELLS AS THE
BASIS OF LIFE
PART 1 – CELL STRUCTURE
(WHAT DISTINGUISHES ONE CELL
FROM ANOTHER?)
  List the characteristics of life.
 List the major elements of life.
 Define what is a cell.
 Explain how the diversity of life is
classified.

LEARNING
 Explain the fundamental differences
between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

OUTCOMES
 Investigate a variety of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells.
 Describe a range of technologies
that are used to determine a cell’s
structure and function.
 Identify characteristic structures of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and
describe their basic function.

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  Some characteristic of living
things:

WHAT IS
 Reproduce
 Grow and develop

LIFE?
 Respond to the
environment
 Metabolise to use and
generate energy

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 carbon,
What are the hydrogen,
oxygen,
major elements nitrogen,
THE of life? phosphorus,
sulphur
COMPONENTS
OF LIFE These are present in quite
uniform relative amounts
across organisms.

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THE COMPONENTS OF LIFE

 Miller (1953) set up a system to mimic the conditions of

early Earth that were predicted at the time.
 He collected a variety of organic compounds common in
organisms, for example, amino acids and hydrocarbons.
 This has been repeated more recently using molecules
thought to comprise the early atmosphere. Organic
molecules may be synthesised abiotically.
 The Miller-Urey Experiment
 Can we make life?

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WHAT IS A CELL?

 The smallest unit of organisation that can

perform all the activities essential for life.
 Cells share characteristics, for example, all
cells have a membrane.
 Cell theory states:
 All organisms are made up of cells.
 New cells are produced from existing cells.
 The cell is the smallest organisational unit of a living
thing.

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WHAT IS LIFE?

 What about viruses?

 What about prions?
WHAT IS LIFE? VIRUSES

 Viruses are smaller and simpler than cells.

 They rely on a host to reproduce.
 They cannot carry out metabolism outside their host.
 Viruses are not considered living.

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WHAT IS LIFE? PRIONS

 Prions are infectious proteins that appear to cause a variety of

degenerative brain diseases such as “mad cow disease”.
 Proteins cannot replicate themselves; prions simply fold normal
versions of a particular protein into the misfolded form they are in.
 Prions are not living.

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 WHAT IS LIFE?
 Life is diverse.
 At the highest level, life is classified into three domains.

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WHAT IS LIFE?

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WHAT IS LIFE?
 How do cells differ
across domains?
 Eukaryotic cells have
membrane bound
organelles. The largest of
these is usually the
nucleus.
 Prokaryotic cells are
simpler and typically
smaller. The DNA is not
contained within a
nucleus and they do not
carry membrane bound
organelles.

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PROKARYOTES: ARCHAEA

 Similar in size to bacteria, but can vary in shape.

 Share some traits with eukaryotes, for example, how they process DNA and
synthesise proteins.
 Have some unique features, for example, the composition of the cell membrane.
 They are able to live in extreme environments - they have unique cell
membranes made of lipids that respond rapidly to external conditions. (These
lipids are different to those in the membranes of the eukaryotes, which respond
only in a narrow range of temperatures.)
 Are found in association with humans, for example, in the mouth and
gastrointestinal tract, but are not pathogenic.
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PROKARYOTES: BACTERIA

 Are ten times more numerous in the human body than human cells!
 Have a range of morphologies (sizes and shapes).
 Most have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan. Microbiologists classify bacteria as
either Gram positive or Gram negative, depending on how thick the
peptidoglycan layer is. (Gram positive have a thick layer that stains purple with
crystal violet. Gram negative have a thin layer that stains pink.)
 Many have other features, such as flagella, for motility, or the ability to produce
endospores.
 Vary in their metabolism. Cyanobacteria obtain energy from photosynthesis,
others use inorganic compounds such as sulfides in chemosynthesis.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARCHAEA & BACTERIA

 Bacteria are more ancient (archaea share a more recent common

ancestor with the eukaryotes).
 Archaea have a different lipid structure in the cell membrane.
 The cell wall in bacteria contains peptidoglycan, but the cell wall in
the archaea does not.
 Methanogenesis (a metabolic system in which methane is produced)
is unique to the archaea.
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COMPARING PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller

than eukaryotic cells. This allows the
cells to take in and release materials
efficiently and replicate quickly.
 Bacteria are typically 1-5mm in diameter.
 Eukaryotes are typically 10-100mm in
diameter.

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COMPARING PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells share some

features: a cell membrane, DNA and
ribosomes.
 The cell membrane is a selective barrier.
It surrounds a jelly-like substance called
cytosol.
 The cytoplasm of eukaryotes includes
the cytosol and the organelles.
However, it does not include the nucleus.
 Some eukaryotes (plants, fungi and
protists) also have cell walls, but this is
composed of carbohydrates rather than
peptidoglycan.

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COMPARING PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells both

contain DNA in the form of chromosomes.
 Prokaryotes contain a single
chromosome. This is concentrated in an
area called the nucleoid. It is not
contained within a membrane. They may
also carry extra-chromosomal DNA
(double-stranded DNA called plasmids).
 Eukaryotes carry chromosomes
contained within a double membrane
called the nucleus.

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COMPARING PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells contain

ribosomes.
 Ribosomes are made of ribosomal RNA and
protein.
 Ribosomes can exist free in the cytosol or
bound (associated with the endoplasmic
reticulum or nuclear envelope; eukaryotes
only).

Ribosomes: the protein factories of cells

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  Can be used to identify and examine
single cells.
 Still widely used by scientists in hospitals
and pathology laboratories, and by
microbiologists, ecologists, botanists and
biotechnologists for their research.

TECHNOLOGY:  The compound light microscope is

designed for magnifying images of objects
using light and two or more glass lenses

THE LIGHT (“compound” – having more than one

lens).
 The term “light” refers to the fact that

MICROSCOPE light transmits the image to your eye (in

contrast to electron microscopes in which
beams of electrons are used to create
magnified images).
 Advantages – relatively cheap, portable
and can be used to view living cells in
colour. Specimen preparation is also
relatively quick and simple.
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TECHNOLOGY: THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

 The key factor in optimising the

compound light microscopes
performance is not magnification, but
resolution. Resolution is the ability to
separate two closely spaced items. A
lens magnifies by bending light, and
because of this, even the best optical
microscopes are limited to a resolution of
0.2mm. In other words, the smallest detail
that can be seen under the highest
magnification of the light microscope is
0.2mm.

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  Uses an electron beam and electromagnetic
lenses, rather than light to view objects.
 Advantages – has a much higher resolution
and a greater depth of field (range of depth

TECHNOLOGY:
that the specimen remains in acceptable
focus) than an image from a light
microscope.

THE
 Disadvantages – preparation is more
laborious; black and white images only;
can’t view live specimens.
 There are different types:

ELECTRON  Transmission electron microscopy (TEM):

the electron beam passes through an
ultra thin section of a specimen. Allows us

MICROSCOPE to see the detail of cellular structures.

 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): the
electron beam is bounced off the
specimen that has been coated with an
extremely thin layer of gold. Allows high-
resolution picture of surface features.

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ACTIVITY

 Go to Myscope to see how a scanning

electron microscope (SEM) works.
• Make your own notes.
• Also complete the “Let’s zoom in” and
“Learn to use SEM” activities.

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TECHNOLOGY: AUTORADIOGRAPHY

 Can identify specific organelles or the

location of molecules within a cell or
tissue.
 The steps involved are:
 The tissue is treated with a radioactive
labelled substance.
 The tissue is thinly sectioned and placed on
photographic film.
 The tissue emits beta particles, which
produce an image on the film.

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ACTIVITIES

Practical activities:
• Use a light microscope to Secondary
compare structure and size investigation:
of prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. Use secondary
• Use a light microscope and sources to find
digital images produced by and compare cell
light microscopes and size.
electron microscopes
(electron micrographs) to
compare animal and plant 06/12/2024

cells.
EUKARYOTES: ANIMAL VS PLANT CELLS

 Watch Cell Structure

 Gizmos “Cell structure”
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ORGANELLE: MITOCHONDRIA

 Mitochondria are present in almost all

eukaryotic cells.
 The number of mitochondria (from one to
thousands) in cells depends on how metabolically
active the cell is.
 They have TWO membranes: the outer
membrane and the inner membrane.
 The inner membrane is selectively permeable
and has folds (christae) to increase its surface
area.
 The area between the membrane is the matrix.
 The inner mitochondrial membrane contains
many proteins, such as those that synthesis ATP.
 The matrix contents includes mitochondrial DNA
and ribosomes.

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ORGANELLE: CHLOROPLASTS

 Chloroplasts are present in the green

portions of plants and algae.
 They contain the green pigment
chlorophyll and components (e.g.
enzymes) that enable sugar to be
produced by photosynthesis.
 They have an outer membrane and an
inner membrane.
 Grana, stacked thylakoid membranes,
reside in the stroma. These contain
chloroplast DNA and ribosomes.

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ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY

 The endosymbiotic theory states that

some organelles of eukaryotes,
mitochondria and chloroplasts, originated
from uptake and symbiosis of single
celled microorganisms.
 Endocytosis is the uptake by invagination
of the membrane.
 Evidence suggests chloroplast developed
from the endocytosis of cyanobacteria
(photosynthetic bacteria).

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ORGANELLE: NUCLEUS

 The presence of a defined nucleus

distinguishes a eukaryotic from
prokaryotic cell.
 It is a large organelle surrounded by a
double membrane.
 It contains pores that link it to the
cytoplasm.
 It controls all cellular activity and
contains the cell’s genetic information.

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  This is a rigid layer encompassing cells of
bacteria, algae, fungi and plant cells. It
determines cell shape and provides
tensile strength, structural support and
protection against osmotic pressure.
 Bacteria are either gram-positive or
gram-negative – their cell walls are

ORGANELLE:
composed of a peptidoglycan. In gram-
negative bacteria, there is a cell wall
between a plasma membrane and a
permeable outer membrane. In gram-

CELL WALL positive bacteria there is one plasma

membrane, which is surrounded by a
thicker cell wall.
 In contrast, eukaryotic cell walls (in fungi,
algae, and higher plants) are composed
principally of polysaccharides e.g. fungal
cell walls are composed of chitin whilst
higher plants and most algae cell walls
are principally cellulose.
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ORGANELLE: CILIA AND FLAGELLA

These are cell protrusions involved in

motion - when they beat, flagella propel
an entire cell forwards whilst cilia brush
material across an area.

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ORGANELLE:
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

 The smooth ER has an outer surface that lacks ribosomes

and the rough ER has a surface that is associated with
ribosomes.
 The smooth ER plays a diverse role in metabolic
processes, for example, drug detoxification, lipid
synthesis, calcium storage.
 The rough ER is associated with secreted proteins. They
are segregated and transported via vesicles.

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ORGANELLE: RIBOSOMES

 This organelle is assembled of a small

and large subunit each composed of
ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins.
Ribosomes may either be free in the
cytoplasm or embedded on the rough ER.
Their function is to act as the platform
for protein synthesis from their
constituent amino acids.

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ORGANELLE: GOLGI

 On leaving ER, vesicles may

travel to the Golgi apparatus.
 Akin to a warehouse, proteins
are modified, stored and
transported onwards from
here.
 It consists of cristernae,
flattened membranous sacs.
 New vesicles form and leave
to new sites, that may be
targeted.
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ORGANELLE: LYSOSOMES

 The membrane segregates an acidic environment that

contains enzymes that hydrolyse macromolecules.
 These enzymes breakdown lipids, carbohydrates and
proteins into small molecules that can be used by the
cell.
 Lysosomes also remove “junk and clutter” in the cell.

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ORGANELLE: VACUOLES

 Vesicles derived from ER and Golgi that

contain an environment different to the
cytosol, which differs depending on their
role.
 These are most common in plant and
fungal cells and are required for molecular
degradation and storage, detoxing and
waste management.
 They maintain turgor pressure in the cell,
thereby providing support and structure.
 Unicellular eukaryotes in freshwater may
have contractile vacuoles that remove
water to maintain ion concentrations.
 The central vacuole of plant cells acts as
an ion repository.
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ORGANELLE:
CELL MEMBRANE
 Living cells are continually
exchanging materials with
their external environment.
Basic requirements, such as
water, glucose, amino acids,
mineral ions and oxygen
move into cells. Wastes, such
as carbon dioxide and urea,
are released.
 The cell membrane regulates
the flow of substances into
and out of cells.
 The Fluid Mosaic Model
(Singer & Nicholson, 1972) –
fluidity refers to the rapid
movement of lipids and
proteins laterally, in the plane
of the membrane.

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COMPOSITION OF THE MEMBRANE: LIPIDS, PROTEINS AND
CARBOHYDRATES

 Membranes contain many fatty molecules,

including cholesterol, between the
phospholipid molecules. Cholesterol gives
stability to the membrane without affecting
the fluidity. It also reduces the permeability
of the cell membrane to small, water-soluble
molecules. Lipids play an important role in
isolating cells from their environment.
 Proteins maintain cell flexibility and
durability. They also play an important role
in transport across the membrane.
 Carbohydrates allow cells to be recognised
by other cells and proteins.
 The inner life of a cell
 Download Organelle summary table

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