Power

Electronics
Students to add more details or information to
thie respective topics.
Index
 Introduction to Power Electronics
 Power semiconductor diodes and transistors
 Power Semiconductor Device History
 Power Semiconductor Device Classification
 Power Semiconductor Diode
 Types of Power Diodes
 Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications of Power
Diode(Pranav)
 Transistor
 Types of Transistor & Their Application (Rochana)
 Rectifier (Poornima)
 Half Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Rectifier Electronics
 Thyristors (Prathiksha)
 SCR (Thilak D)
 Thyristor Commutation Techniques (Arifa)
Index
 BJT
 MOSFET
 IGBT
 Phase controlled rectifiers
 Choppers
 Inverters
 AC Voltage regulators
 Cycloconverters
 Power factor improvements
 Thermal Management
Power Electronics
 EMC Compliance
Introduction to Power Electronics
 Power electronics is the application of electronics to the control and conversion
of electric power.
 Power Electronics refers to the process of controlling the flow of current and
voltage and converting it to a form that is suitable for user loads.
 The most desirable power electronic system is one whose efficiency and
reliability is 100%.
 Electronics deals with the solid-state devices and circuits for signal processing to
meet the desired control objectives.
 The diagram shows the components of a Power Electronic system and how they
are interlinked.
 Applications of Power Electronics are classified into two types Power Electronics
 Static Applications
 Drive Applications
 Power Semiconductor Device History
 Power electronics started with the development of the mercury arc rectifier.
 Invented by Peter Cooper Hewitt in 1902, it was used to convert alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC).
 In 1947 the bipolar point-contact transistor was invented by Walter H. Brattain
and John Bardeen under the direction of William Shockley at Bell Labs.
 In 1948 Shockley's invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) improved
the stability and performance of transistors, and reduced costs.

Mercury Arc Rectifier
By the 1950s, higher power semiconductor diodes became available and
started replacing vacuum tubes. In 1956 the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
was introduced by General Electric, greatly increasing the range of power
electronics applications.
 By the 1960s the improved switching speed of bipolar junction transistors had
allowed for high frequency DC/DC converters.
 In 1976 power MOSFETs became commercially available.
 In 1982 the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) was introduced BJT
Power Semiconductor
Device Classification
 Power semiconductor switching devices can be classified
on the basis of
 Uncontrolled turn on and off (diodes)
 Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off (SCR)
 Controlled turn on and off (BJT, MOSFET, GTO, IGBT)

Types of Semiconductor
Continuous gate signal requirement (BJT, MOSFET,
IGBT) Types of
Rectifiers
 Pulse gate requirement (SCR, GTO)
 Bipolar voltage-withstanding capability (SCR, GTO) Single Three
Phase Phase
 Unipolar voltage withstanding capability (BJT,
MOSFET, GTO) Uncontrolled
Half
Controlled
Fully
Controlled Uncontrolled
Half
Controlled
Fully
Controlled

 Bidirectional current capability (TRIAC) Half wave Full wave Half wave Half wave

 Unidirectional current capability (SCR, GTO, BJT, Split Supply Full Bridge Full Bridge
MOSFET, DIODE)
Bridge

Types of Rectifier
Power Semiconductor Diode
 Diode is a two terminal P-N junction semiconductor device, with
terminals anode (A) and cathode (C).
 The symbol of the Power diode is same as signal level diode.
 It consists of two terminal
 Anode Diode Symbol
 Cathode
 The VI Characteristics of diode shows the behavior of the diode.
 If terminal anode experiences a higher potential compared to terminal
cathode, the device is said to be forward biased and a forward
current will flow from anode to cathode.
 Under forward-bias condition, signal diode current increases
exponentially and then increases linearly.
 In forward-bias there is 0.7 V barrier potential is there it is called as
cut in voltage.
 When a diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct and the diode
VI Characteristic
then experiences a small leakage current flows due to minority
carriers.
Types of Power
Diodes
Silicon Rectifier Diode
 Diodes conduct current more easily in one direction than in the other. This process is
used to produce rectification.
 Silicon rectifiers have high forward-to-reverse current ratios. This is the ratio of current
allowed in the forward direction compared to the current allowed in the reverse direction.
 Zener Diodes
 An electronic device that can be used as a voltage regulator is the Zener diode.
 The Zener has unique reverse bias qualities that make it differ from the typical diode.
 Schottky Diode
Diodes
 Schottky Diode has a metal on one side of the junction and an N-Type semiconductor
on the other side.
 These diodes are used where a low forward voltage drop (usually 0.3V) is needed in low
output voltage circuits.
 Light Emitting Diodes
 When connected in the forward bias direction, it emits light. Light emitting diodes are
made from semiconductor compounds Schottky Diode
Power Diode
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Diode
 The advantages and disadvantages of power diode include the following.
 The PN-junction region of this diode is large & can supply huge current, however, the capacitance of this junction can
also be large, which works at a lower frequency & it is generally used for rectification only.
 It will resolve AC at high current and a high voltage.
 The main disadvantage is its size & probably needs to be fixed to a heat sink while conducting a high current.
 It needs specialized hardware for installing and insulating from the metal frames which are available in the surrounding.

 Power Diode Applications

 As a rectifier Diode
 For Voltage Clamping
 As a Voltage Multiplier
 As a freewheeling Diode
Transistor
 A transistor is an electronic component that is used in circuits to
either amplify or switch electrical signals or power, allowing it to be
used in a wide array of electronic devices.
 A transistor consists of two PN diodes connected back to back.
 It has three terminals namely emitter, base and collector.
 A transistor is a semiconductor device with three terminals,
capable of amplification and rectification.
 Terminals of Transistor
 A transistor is composed of three terminals BJT
 Emitter :This segment is on the left side of the transistor. It is

moderately sized and heavily doped.

 Collector :This segment is on the right side of the transistor.

It is larger than the emitter and is moderately doped.

 Base :This is at the center of the transistor. It is thin and

lightly doped.
 Base-emitter junction is forward biased
 Collector-base junction is reverse biased
Types of Transistor & Their Application
 There are two types of transistors are there
 Bipolar Junction Transistor
 A bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is a current controlled

device that consists of two PN junction for its function.

 It is configured in two ways as NPN and PNP.

 The NPN transistor is made by placing a p-type material between two n-

type materials.
 Likewise, the PNP transistor is made by placing an n-type material between

two p-type materials.

 Field Effect Transistor Types Transistors
 A field-effect transistor shortly termed as FET is a voltage-controlled

device, unlike BJT which is a current controlled device.

 The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using either p-

type or n-type material as the main substrate.

 Application
 Transistor as an amplifier serves as an energy booster.
 Transistors also work as switches
Rectifier
 A Rectifier is an electrical device that is made of one or more
than one diodes that converts the alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC).
 Rectification is the process of conversion of the alternating
current (which periodically changes direction) into direct
current (flow in a single direction).
 Usually, the types of Rectifiers are classified based on their
output. There are two main types of rectifier circuits
 Half Wave Rectifiers
 A Half-wave rectifier circuit rectifies only positive half

cycles of the input supply.

 Full Wave Rectifiers
 A Full-wave rectifier circuit rectifies both positive and

negative half cycles of the input supply.

Rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier
 The half-wave rectifier itself states that the rectification is done only for half of
the cycle.
 The AC signal is given through an input transformer which steps up or down
according to the usage.
 Mostly a step down transformer is used in rectifier circuits, so as to reduce the
input voltage.
 The input signal given to the transformer is passed through a PN junction diode
which acts as a rectifier.
 This diode converts the AC voltage into pulsating dc for only the positive half
cycles of the input.
 The Working of half wave rectifier.
 The input signal is given to the transformer which reduces the voltage levels.
The output from the transformer is given to the diode which acts as a rectifier.
 This diode gets ON conducts for positive half cycles of input signal.
 Hence a current flows in the circuit and there will be a voltage drop across the
load resistor.
Half Wave Rectifier
 The diode gets OFF doesn't conduct for negative half cycles and hence the
output for negative half cycles will be, Id=0 and Vo=0
Full Wave
Rectifiers
A Rectifier circuit that rectifies both the positive and negative half cycles
can be termed as a full wave rectifier as it rectifies the complete cycle.
 The construction of a full wave rectifier can be made in two types.
 Center-tapped Full wave rectifier
 Bridge full wave rectifier
1.Center-tapped Full wave rectifier
 A rectifier circuit whose transformer secondary is tapped to get the
desired output voltage, using two diodes alternatively, to rectify the
complete cycle is called as a Center-tapped Full wave rectifier circuit.
 Working of Center-tapped Full wave rectifier is.
 When the positive half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point M
at the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to the
point N. This makes the diode D1 forward biased.
 When the negative half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point
M at the transformer secondary becomes negative with respect to the
point N. This makes the diode D2 forward biased.
Center tap
Full Wave Rectifiers
2. Bridge full wave rectifier
 Four diodes called D1,D2, D3 and D4 are used in constructing a bridge type network
so that two of the diodes conduct for one half cycle and two conduct for the other half
cycle of the input supply.
 Working of a Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier
 The full wave rectifier with four diodes connected in bridge circuit is employed to

get a better full wave output response.

 When the positive half cycle of the input supply is given, point P becomes

positive with respect to the point Q. This makes the diode D1and D3 forward
biased while D2 and D4 reverse biased. These two diodes will now be in series
with the load resistor.
 Hence the diodes D1 and D3 conduct during the positive half cycle of the input.

 When the negative half cycle of the input supply is given, point P becomes

negative with respect to the point Q. This makes the diode D1 and D3 reverse
biased while D2 and D4 forward biased. These two diodes will now be in series
with the load resistor.
 Hence the diodes D2 and D4 conduct during the negative half cycle of the input.

 Advantages of Bridge full wave rectifier

Bridge full wave rectifier
 No need of center-tapping.
 The dc output voltage is twice that of the center-tapper FWR.
Thyristors
 A thyristor is a semiconductor device used for controlling electrical power. It
acts as a switch that can handle high voltages and currents and is
commonly used in applications such as power regulation and switching in
electronics and electrical systems.
 Working Principle of a Thyristor
 In a thyristor, the silicon wafer is doped with four alternate P and N types,
which looks like two transistors connected back-to-back.
 Here, the P (cathode) and the N (anode) are joined in series, thus we get
three terminal pins: anode, gate and cathode.
 When we forward bias the anode and cathode i.e. anode and cathode
connected to the positive and negative terminals of a battery.
 the first PN junction and last PN junction (j1 and j3 ) become forward
biased due to break of the depletion layer.
 The junction j2 remains as reversed biased as no current is provided to
the gate.
Thyristors
Continue….
 When we supply current to the gate, then the j2 junction layer starts breaking and the current starts flowing in the circuit.
When a sufficient positive signal current or pulse is applied to the gate terminal, it triggers the thyristor into a conducting
state.
 A thyristor can only be fully on or off, means it cannot lie in between On and Off states similar to transistors. This makes
a thyristor unsuitable as an analog amplifier, but useful as a switching device.
 Uses and Types Of Thyristors
 There are generally 3 different kinds of thyristor:

1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier – SCR.

It has the ability to control huge current and is generally used as high frequency switch in an electrical circuit.
2. Gate Turn OFF Thyristor – GTO.
They are used in inverters, AC drives, induction heater etc.
3. Insulated Gate Controlled Bipolar Transistor – IGBT.
They are used in SMPS, motor control, induction heating, etc.
 We use thyristor as switching circuit where we have to control motors and operate ON/OFF lamps.
 Note: Thyristor devices are mainly used where high voltage and current are involved and are often used to
control alternating currents (AC).
 SCR
 The SCR is a unidirectional device that allows the current to flow in one direction and opposes it in
another direction.
 The Symbol of the SCR will be similar to that of the diode, additionally, it has a gate terminal.
 SCR has three terminals namely Anode (A), Cathode (K) and gate (G), it can be turned ON or
OFF by controlling the biasing conditions or the gate input.
 Again the Thyristor symbol and SCR symbol are the same. Now that we know how an
SCR/Thyristor can be represented in a circuit diagram, let’s look into the SCR Construction and
Working to understand more about it.
 Construction of SCR
 The SCR is a four-layered semiconductor device that forms NPNP or PNPN structure, which
eventually forms three junctions J1, J2, and J3.
 Among the three terminals of the SCR, the Anode is a positive electrode, it will be on the P-
layer and Cathode is a negative electrode, it will be on the N-layer of the SCR, the Gate acts as
a control terminal of the SCR. The SCR Construction image is shown behind.
 The outer P and N layers where the two electrodes are placed will be heavily doped and the
middle P and N layers will be lightly doped, the gate terminal will be connected to the P-layer in
the middle. The SCRs are constructed with three different types, planar type, Mesa type, and
SCR
Press pack type.
How SCR Works
 To understand the SCR working principle we have to look into the different ways it can operate.
Depending on the polarity of the voltage applied and the gate pulse given to the SCR, it can
operate in three different modes such as
 Forward Blocking mode
 Forward Conduction mode
 Reverse Blocking mode
 Now, let’s understand the Thyristor working by taking a look at each of the operating modes with
its circuit diagram.
 Forward Blocking Mode
 In this mode of operation, the positive voltage is applied to the anode and the negative voltage
applied to the cathode, there will not be any pulse applied to the gate, it will be kept in the open
state.
 Once the voltage is applied, the junctions J1 and J3 will be forward biased and the junction J2 will
be reverse biased. Since J2 is reverse biased the width of the depletion region increases and it
acts as an obstacle for conduction, so only a small amount of current will be flowing from J1 to J3.
 When the voltage applied to the SCR is increased and if it reaches the breakdown voltage of the Forward Blocking
SCR, the junction J2 gets depleted due to avalanche breakdown.
 Once the Avalanche breakdown occurs the current will start flowing through the SCR. In this
mode of operation, the SCR is forward biased, but, there will not be any current flow.
Continue…
 Forward Conduction Mode
 The Forward Conduction Mode is the only mode at which the SCR will be in the ON state and will
be conducting. We can make the SCR conduct in two different ways, one we can increase the
applied forward bias voltage beyond the breakdown voltage or else we can apply a positive voltage
to the gate terminal.
 When we increase the Applied forward bias voltage between the anode and cathode the junction J2
will be depleted due to the avalanche breakdown and the SCR will start conducting.
 We are not able to do this for all the applications and this method of activating the SCR will
eventually reduce the lifetime of the SCR .
 If you want to use the SCR for low voltage applications you can apply a positive voltage to the gate
of the SCR. The applied positive voltage will help the SCR to move to the conduction state. During
this mode of operation, the SCR will be operating in forward bias and current will be flowing through
it.
 Reverse Blocking Mode
 In the reverse blocking mode, the positive voltage is applied to the Cathode (-) and the Negative
voltage is given to the Anode (+), There will not be any pulse given to the gate, it will be kept as an
open circuit. During this mode of operation the Junctions J1 and J3 will be reverse biased and the
junction J2 will be forward biased.
 Since the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased there will not be any current flowing through the
SCR. Modes of operation
 Although there will be a small leakage current flowing due to the drift charge carriers in the
forward-biased Junction J2, it is not enough to turn on the SCR.
VI Characteristics of SCR
 The VI characteristics of the SCR are obtained by operating the SCR in three
different regions, namely forward blocking region, forward conduction region and
reverse blocking region.
 When the SCR is operating in the reverse blocking mode, there will be small
leakage current flowing in the reverse direction of the SCR which is mentioned as
the reverse leakage current in the graph, the reverse leakage current will be
located at the negative quadrants of the graph.
 Now if you apply positive voltage to anode and negative voltage to cathode the
SCR will start operating in the forward blocking mode and a small leakage
current will be flowing through the SCR in the positive direction, hence the curve
starts rising to a certain level in the positive quadrants of the graph which is
mentioned as the forward leakage current.
 Once the graph reaches a certain voltage level called the Breakdown voltage or if
the gate current Ig is applied to the SCR, the SCR moves to the conduction
mode and a high amount of current starts flowing through the SCR. The current
flow is represented as the forward conduction in the VI curve. The gate current
SCR
applied are mentioned as Ig1, Ig2 and Ig3, higher the applied gate current faster
the SCR goes to the conduction state as Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1.
 Thyristor Commutation Techniques
 Thyristor commutation techniques are methods used to turn off or control the conduction of thyristors
(semiconductor devices like SCR) in electronic circuits. These techniques include:
 Natural Commutation
 Forced Commutation
 Class A: Self or Load Commutation
 Class B: Resonant-Pulse Commutation
 Class C: Complementary Commutation
 Class D: Impulse Commutation
 Class E: External Pulse Commutation
 Natural Commutation Techniques
Natural Commutation
 Natural Commutation occurs only in AC circuits, and it is named so because it doesn’t require any
external circuit.
 When a positive cycle reaches to zero and the anode current is zero, immediately a reverse voltage
(negative cycle) is applied across the Thyristor which causes the Thyristor to turn OFF.
 A Natural Commutation occurs in AC Voltage Controllers, Cycloconverters, and Phase Controlled
Rectifiers.
 Thyristor Commutation Techniques
 Forced Commutation
As we know there is no natural zero current in DC Circuits like as natural commutation. So, Forced
Commutation is used in DC circuits and it is also called as DC commutation. It requires
commutating elements like inductance and capacitance to forcefully reduce the anode current of the
Thyristor below the holding current value, that’s why it is called as Forced Commutation. Mainly
forced commutation is used in Chopper and Inverters circuits. Forced commutation is divided into six
categories, which are explained below:
 Class A: Self or Load Commutation
 Class A is also called as “Self-Commutation” and it is one of the most used technique among all
Thyristor commutation technique. In the below circuit, the inductor, capacitor and resistor form a
second order under damp circuit.
 When we start supplying the input voltage to the circuit the Thyristor will not turn ON, as it
requires a gate pulse to turn ON. Now when the Thyristor turns ON or forward biased, the current
will flow through the inductor and charges the capacitor to its peak value or equal to the input Commutation Techniques
voltage. Now, as the capacitor gets fully charged, inductor polarity gets reversed and inductor
starts opposing the flow of current. Due to this, the output current starts to decrease and reach to
zero. At this moment the current is below the holding current of the Thyristor, so the Thyristor
turns OFF.
Continue…
 Class B: Resonant-Pulse Commutation
 Class B commutation is also called as Resonant-Pulse Commutation. There is only a
small change between Class B and Class A circuit. In class B LC resonant circuit is
connected in parallel while in Class A it’s in series.
 Now, as we apply the input voltage, the capacitor starts charging up to the input
voltage (Vs) and Thyristor remains reversed biased until the gate pulse is applied.
 When we apply the gate pulse, the Thyristor turns ON and now the current start
flowing from both the ways. But, then the constant load current flows through the
resistance and inductance connected in series, due to its large reactance.
 Then a sinusoidal current flow through the LC resonant circuit to charge the
capacitor with the reverse polarity. Hence, a reverse voltage appears across the
Thyristor, which causes the current Ic (commutating current) to oppose the flow of
the anode current IA.
 Therefore, due to this opposing commutating current, when the anode current is
Commutation Techniques
getting lesser than the holding current, Thyristor turns OFF.
Continue..
 Class C: Complementary Commutation
 Class C commutation is also called as Complementary Commutation. As you can
see the circuit below, there are two Thyristor in parallel, one is main and another is
auxiliary.
 Initially, both the Thyristor are in OFF condition and the voltage across capacitor is
also zero.
 Now, as the gate pulse is applied to the main Thyristor, the current will start flowing
from two paths, one is from R1-T1 and second is R2-C-T1. Hence, the capacitor
also starts charging to the peak value equal to the input voltage with the polarity of
plate B positive and plate A negative.
 Now, as the gate pulse is applied to the Thyristor T2, it turns ON and a negative
polarity of current appear across the Thyristor T1 which cause T1 to get turn OFF.
 the capacitor starts charging with the reverse polarity. Simply we can say that when
T1 turns ON it turns OFF T2 and as T2 turns ON it turns OFF T1.
Commutation Techniques
Continue..
 Class D: Impulse Commutation
 Class D commutation is also called as Impulse Commutation or Voltage
Commutation. As Class C, Class D commutation circuit also consists of two Thyristor
T1 and T2 and they are named as main and auxiliary respectively. Here, diode,
inductor, and auxiliary Thyristor form the commutation circuit.
 Initially, both the Thyristor are in OFF state and voltage across capacitor C is also
zero. Now as we apply the input voltage and trigger the Thyristor T1 the load current
starts flowing through it. And, the capacitor starts charging with polarity of plate A
negative and plate B positive.
 Now, as we trigger the auxiliary Thyristor T2, the main Thyristor T1 turns OFF and
the capacitor starts charging with the opposite polarity. When it gets full-charged, it
causes the auxiliary Thyristor T2 to turn OFF, because a capacitor does not allow the
flow of current through it when it gets fully charged.
 Therefore, the output current will also be zero because at this stage because of both
the Thyristors are in OFF state. Commutation Techniques
Continue…
 Class E: External Pulse Commutation
 Class E commutation is also called External Pulse Commutation.
Now, you can see in the circuit diagram, the Thyristor is already in
forward bias. So, as we trigger the Thyristor, the current will appear
at the load.
 The capacitor in the circuit is used for the dv/dt protection of the
Thyristor and the pulse transformer is used to turn OFF the
Thyristor.
 Now, when we give pulse through the pulse transformer an
opposite current will flow in the direction of the cathode. This
opposite current oppose the flow of the anode current and if IA –
IP < IH Thyristor will turn OFF.
 Where IA is Anode current, IP is pulse current and IH is holding Commutation Techniques
current.
BJT
 A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device which consists of two
pn-junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor material
between a pair of opposite type semiconductors.
 The primary function of BJT is to increase the strength of a weak signal, i.e., it acts
as an amplifier. A BJT can also be used as a solid state switch in electronic circuits.
 Types of BJT
 NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor
 Working Principle of BJT
 The emitter-base junction of BJT is forward-biased, whereas the collector-base
junction is reverse biased. The forward bias of the emitter-base junction causes
the emitter current to flow and this emitter current entirely flows in the collector
circuit. Therefore, the collector current depends upon the emitter current and
nearly equal to the emitter current. Bipolar Junction Transistor
 Continue…
 NPN Transistor
 An npn-transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductor materials which are
separated by a thin layer of p-type semiconductor. The two terminals viz. Emitter
and Collector are taken out from the two n-type semiconductor and the Base
terminal is from the p-type semiconductor.
 In BJT symbol, the arrow on the emitter terminal indicates the direction of
conventional current in the emitter with forward bias. For npn-transistor, the
conventional current flows out of the emitter as indicated by the outing arrow.
 PNP Transistor
 A pnp-transistor is composed of two p-type semiconductors which are separated
by a thin layer of n-type material. The two terminals viz. Emitter and Collector
are taken out from the two p-type semiconductor layers and the Base terminal is
from the n-type semiconductor. For the pnp-transistor, the conventional current
flows into the emitter as indicated by the inward arrow.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

 MOSFET
 Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors commonly known as MOSFETs are electronic
devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It is a voltage controlled device and is
constructed by three terminals.
 When voltage is applied to the gate, an electrical field is generated that changes the
width of the channel region, where the electrons flow. The wider the channel region, the
better conductivity of a device will be.
 MOSFET Construction
The circuit of MOSFET is typically represented as follows:
 The p-type semiconductor forms the base of the MOSFET.
 The two types of the base are highly doped with an n-type impurity which is marked as
n+ in the diagram.
 From the heavily doped regions of the base, the terminals source and drain originate.
 The layer of the substrate is coated with a layer of silicon dioxide for insulation.
 A thin insulated metallic plate is kept on top of the silicon dioxide and it acts as a
capacitor.
 The gate terminal is brought out from the thin metallic plate. MOSFET
 A DC circuit is then formed by connecting a voltage source between these two n-type
regions.
 Types of

MOSFETs
The classification of MOSFET based on the construction and the material used is given below in the flowchart.

 MOSFETs are of two classes: MOSFET

 Enhancement mode
 Depletion mode.
1. Depletion Mode
When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, the channel shows maximum conductance. When the voltage across the
gate terminal is either positive or negative, then the channel conductivity decreases.
2. Enhancement Mode

When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, then the device does not conduct. When there is the maximum voltage
across the gate terminal, then the device shows enhanced conductivity.
N-Channel D-MOSFET
 In N-channel D-MOSFET, the source and drains electrode is placed on small N-type
layers. While the gate electrode is placed on top of an insulating metal oxide layer that
electrically insulates it from the channel beneath it. The channel made for N-type
material is fabricated on top of a P-type substrate.
 The channel as it is made of N-type material consists of electrons as charge carriers.
The voltage at the gate produces an electric field that affects the flow of these charge
carriers.
 When the gate is connected in reverse bias i.e. negative voltage VGS < 0 volt is applied,
the holes from the P-substrate will attract towards the gate, depleting it of the electrons
and reduce the channel size. At certain negative VGS the MOSFET will stop conduction
as there will be no channel. This V­GS is threshold voltage Vth. N-channel MOSFET has –
Vth,
 When the gate is connected in reverse bias i.e. negative voltage VGS < 0 volt is applied,
the holes from the P-substrate will attract towards the gate, depleting it of the electrons
and reduce the channel size. At certain negative VGS the MOSFET will stop conduction
as there will be no channel. This V­GS is threshold voltage Vth. N-channel MOSFET has –
N-D-MOSFET
Vth,
P-Channel D-MOSFET
 The P-channel D-MOSFET has the same construction as an N-channel except for
the drain, source electrodes lie on P-type layers. and the channel is made of P-layer
over an N-type substrate. The charge carriers used are holes. The holes have one
disadvantage over electrons. They are quite heavier than electrons and therefore
can cause it to lose some speed in operation.
 Under normal conditions, it can conduct current between its source and drain as
long as there is a voltage between them. the gate voltage can affect the channel
width to increase or decrease it.
 When a positive VGS is applied at its gate, the electric field will cause to attract the
electrons from the N-type substrate that combines with the holes thus depleting the
channel of charge carriers. It reduces the width of the channel and the amount of
current. at a certain point, the VGS completely eliminates the channel and stops the
flow of current.
 Therefore, P-channel D-MOSFET has a positive threshold voltage i.e. it switches off
when positive VGS is applied and switches on when there is no VGS. Applying negative
voltage will induce more holes into the channel causing it to increase or enhance its P-D-MOSFET
current conduction.
N-Channel E-MOSFET
 The N-Channel E-MOSFET has the same structure as D-MOSFET except there is no channel
during manufacturing. The channel is induced by the application of a voltage across its gate.
 N-channel E-MOSFET will not conduct current between its source and drain terminal when the
VGS = 0 volts.
 Because there is no channel to allow current flow. Applying a positive voltage +VGS to the gate
produces an electric field beneath the gate layer.
 It results in attracting the electrons from the P-substrate and pushing back holes away from the
insulating layer. A channel in induced which allows the current between the source and drain.
 The VGS at which the channel is induced is called Vth threshold voltage and increasing the
voltage above Vth causes to enhance the channel width.
 Operating Regions of N-Channel E-MOSFET
 Cutoff Region: In this region, the gate-source voltage V­GS ≤ 0v. There is no drain current ID =
0 regardless of the value of VDS. It operates as a switch.
 Saturation Region: In this region, the VGS > 0v and the VDS > V­GS. The MOSFET allows
maximum drains current IDSS which depends on the level of VGS.
N-E-MOSFET
 Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, VGS > 0 and the VDS < V­GS. the MOSFET acts as an
amplifier. In this region, the current ID increases with the VDS while its amplification depends on
P-Channel E-MOSFET
 P-channel E-MOSFET has the same structure as P-channel D-MOSFET except for the
absence of channel. There is no channel during its construction. It is induced by applying
VGS­.
 When –VGS is applied to the gate, positive charges (holes) gather beneath the insulating
layer and the electrons are pushed back. The holes accumulate together to form a channel
between the source and drain. Now, if the voltage between source and drain is applied, it will
start to conduct current.
 Same as N-channel, it does not conduct when the VGS = 0 V. reducing the voltage below V­th,
the channel width increases, allowing more current to flow through it.
 Operating Regions of N-Channel E-MOSFET
 Cutoff Region: In this region, the gate-source voltage V­GS ≥ 0v. There is no drain current
ID = 0 regardless of the value of VDS. It operates as a switch.
 Saturation Region: In this region, the VGS < 0v and the VDS > V­GS. The MOSFET allows
maximum drains current IDSS which depends on the level of VGS.
 Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, VGS < 0 and the VDS < V­GS. The MOSFET acts as
an amplifier. In this region, the current ID increases with the VDS while its amplification P-E-MOSFE
depends on the VGS as shown in the VI characteristics. T
 IGBT
 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a three terminal power switch having high
input impedance like PMOSFET and low on-state power loss as in BJT (Bipolar
Transistor Junction).
 Thus, IGBT is a combined form of best qualities of both BJT and PMOSFET.
 This is the most popular power switch among the power-electronics engineers and find a
great variety of applications.
 IGBT is a three-terminal device.
 Gate (G),
 Emitter (E)
 Collector (C).
 IGBT is also known as metal oxide insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT), conductivity-
modulated field effect transistor (COMFET) or gain-modulated FET (GEMFET). It was symbol of IGBT
initially called Insulated Gate Transistor (IGT
Construction of IGBT
 An IGBT is constructed on a p+ layer substrate. On p+ substrate, a high resistivity
n- layer is epitaxially grown.
 As in other semi-conductor devices, the thickness of n- layer determines the
voltage blocking capability of IGBT.
 On the other side of p+ substrate, a metal layer is deposited to form the Collector
(C) terminal.
 Now, p regions are diffused in the epitaxially grown n- layer. Further, n+ regions
are diffused in p region. A basic construction structure of IGBT is shown in figure
below.
 Now, an insulating layer of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) is grown on the surface. This
insulating layer is etched in order to embed metallic Emitter and Gate terminals.
 The p+ substrate is also called injector layer because it injects holes into n- layer.
The n- layer is called drift region. The next p layer is called the body of IGBT.
Construction of IGBT
 The n- layer in between the p+ & p region serves to accommodate the depletion
layer of pn- junction i.e. J2.
 VI
Characteristics of

IGBT
Thus IGBT is a voltage-controlled device with an insulated gate. The drain
current increases with increase in Vgs at a constant value of Vds.
 The IGBT possesses all the advantages of MOSFET due to the insulated gate. It
also has all the advantages of the BJT due to bipolar conduction.
 As seen from the VI characteristics of IGBT the drain current (or the collector
current) increases with an increase in the voltage between gate and source
(Vgs).
 Also, note that the gate to source voltage Vgs is positive. Vds is the forward
breakdown voltage.
 This is the value of Vds at which the avalanche breakdown takes place. At this
point the voltage across the device and current through it both are high.
 Therefore the power dissipated in the device will be very large and will damage it.
VI characteristics of IGBT
The device must be therefore operated below this voltage.
Phase-Controlled
Rectifiers
Phase-controlled rectifiers, also known as thyristor rectifiers or
controlled rectifiers, are electronic devices used to convert alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC) in a controlled manner. They
utilize thyristors (also known as silicon-controlled rectifiers or SCRs) to
control the flow of current through the rectifier.
 The primary components of a phase-controlled rectifier include
thyristors, a transformer, and a load. Thyristors are semiconductor
devices that act as controllable switches to regulate the flow of
current. The transformer is used to step down or step up the voltage
as needed.
 The term PCR or Phase controlled rectifier is one type of a rectifier
Phase-Controlled Rectifiers
circuit in which the diodes are replaced by Thyristors or SCRs (Silicon
Controlled Rectifiers). Unlike a diode, a thyristor is a gate-control
electronic switch which can be turn on by gate pulse and can be turn
off when thyristor is reverse-biased. Hence, output of a PCR can be
control by controlling firing pulse (gate pulse).
Phase-Controlled Rectifiers contd…
 Taking the example of the three phase PCR which shown in the diagram at
the start of this post, we can see three thyristors (the one with the symbol
like diode with a dash) in series with each phase wire .
 Now when the phase Y is positive and its voltage is greater than the other
two phases we turn on the thyristor in series with the phase Y and turn off
the others, causing current to start flowing from upwards to downwards
through the DC load.
 After some time, when phase R is positive and its voltage is greater than
other two, we turn on the thyristor which is in series with phase R and turn
the others off.
 Current still flows from upwards to downwards through the DC load. This
process goes on, and the result is : Hence we have extracted DC voltage
from AC successfully. Phase-Controlled Rectifiers
 Now, coming to how the output DC voltage is varied. The firing delay, which
is the time after which the respective thyristors turn on and off when the
phase with the greatest positive voltage changes (as shown in the graph) is
made use of here.
 The firing delay is varied, hence changing the Mean DC Level that is
supplied by our circuit.
Phase-Controlled Rectifiers contd…

 Advantages of PCR:
 Output voltage can be control using firing pulse delay.
 As thyristors are capable of handling around 100A and 1200 ~ 1500V PCR can be operated
over a large range of voltage and current.

 Applications of PCR:
 DC motor control in steel mills
 Battery chargers
 High voltage DC transmission
 AC traction control using DC motors
Chopper
 A chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to a variable DC
output voltage.
 It is basically a high speed ON/OFF semiconductor switch. It may be thought of as DC
equivalent of an AC transformer since they behave in an identical manner.
 Chopper is fed through a constant DC voltage source and its output is variable DC
voltage.
 The average value of output DC voltage may be less than or higher than the input DC
voltage source.
 A simple diagram defining the chopper is shown below.
Chopper
 A chopper is a DC equivalent to an AC transformer having continuously variable turn
ratio. Like a transformer, a it can be used to step-up or step-down the fixed DC input
voltage.
 On this basis, there are two types of chopper:
 Step-Up : A chopper whose average value of DC output voltage is more than the fixed
DC input voltage is called Step-up Chopper
 Step-Down : A chopper whose average value of DC output voltage is less than the DC
input voltage is called Step-down chopper.
Step-Up Chopper
 Step-up chopper (Boost Converter) is used to obtain a load
voltage higher than the input voltage V. The values of L and C
are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage
and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is
connected across the supply. The inductor current ‘I’ rises and
the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper,
tON.
 When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow
through the diode D and load for a period, tOFF. The current
Step-up Chopper
tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced
EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by
𝑑𝐼
𝑉 0=𝑉 + 𝐿 𝑖 . 𝑒. ,𝑉 0> 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
 A large capacitor ‘C’ connected across the load, will provide a
continuous output voltage . Diode D prevents any current flow
from capacitor to the source. Step up choppers are used for
regenerative braking of dc motors.
Step-Down
 A Step-down chopper is a static device that step downs its DC input
voltage. The value of average output DC voltage of this chopper is less
than that of its fixed DC input source voltage. This type of chopper is
more common.
 Working Principle:
 Before we start discussing the working principle of Step-down Chopper,
it is imperative to first have a look at its circuit diagram. The circuit Step-Down Chopper
diagram is shown in figure.
 The chopper is shown within a dotted line and assumed to be a switch.
This circuit consists of inductor L, a free-wheeling diode, chopper CH,
Source and Load. Fixed DC input voltage Vs is applied and our aim is to
get the variable DC output voltage which is a function of chopper. To get
the variable DC voltage, we will switch ON and OFF the chopper CH at
some frequency called the chopping frequency (f).
Buck-Boost Converter
 Referring to the basic buck-boost topology diagram above, when
the switch S is closed, the input voltage VIN is blocked by the diode
D, since D is reverse biased. Therefore the voltage has no other
option but to flow through the inductor L.
 The inductor L due to its inherent reluctance property initially tries to
block the current. Due to this, initially the voltage drop across L is
high. However, slowly as the reluctance of the coil decreases and
the current through the inductor increases.
 During this phase the inductor L stores the energy (voltage and Buck - Boost Converter
current) inside its winding.
 Ideally this the point when the switch S needs to be opened.
 When switch S is now opened, the voltage VL stored inside the
inductor reverses direction, and it passes through the diode D which
is now forward biased. In the process VL also passes through the
output capacitor and charges it fully.
Buck-Boost Converter contd…
 During this phase the output capacitor stores energy inside it and gets fully charged, simultaneously the load across
VOUT also gets the energy from the inductor for ts operation.
 Next, at this point if the switch is closed again, the process repeats as explained above, however now the capacitor
provides its stored energy to the load.
 Depending how how fast or how slow the switch S is closed and opened, the output DC can be a stepped up or
boosted output, or it can be a stepped down or buck output.
 In a real life electronic buck-boost circuit, the switch S is replaced with a BJT or a MOSFET and this device is
switched ON/OFF through an external PWM for generating a buck or a boost output.
Inverter
 An inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current (DC)
into alternating current (AC). It changes the electrical polarity and
magnitude to produce a usable AC output from a DC input.
 Inverters are vital for powering AC devices, especially in off-grid and
renewable energy systems.
 They're used in solar power systems, uninterruptible power
supplies, and electric vehicle propulsion.
 If you used an oscilloscope to look at the signal of these two types of DC TO AC
power you will see that Direct Current sits at its maximum voltage
and continues in a straight line.
 That’s because the current flows directly in only one direction, which
is why it’s called direct current.
 It’s a bit like a river or canal, it’s always at its peak and it flows in one
direction.

Direct Current
Inverter contd…

 If you used an oscilloscope to look at Alternating Current you’ll see a

wave like pattern where the voltage alternates between its two peak
voltages in the positive half and the negative half of its cycle.
 This is because the current travels back and forth. It’s a bit like the
tide of the ocean where it reaches its maximum high tide and
maximum low tide and the current of the water changes direction
between these to peaks.
 So an inverter simply converters from DC to AC and this is a very
useful invention.
 You can also convert from AC to DC using a rectifier and its common
to find both of these in some devices. Alternating Current
How Inverters Work
 Lets consider a simplified circuit where a DC source is being
used to power an AC load. To convert the DC to AC there are 4
switches.
 The switches are paired together so that switches 2 & 3 open
when 1 & 4 close and vice-versa.
 This will force the current through the load in an alternating
direction, therefore the load will experience an alternating
current even though its from a DC source.
 If switches 2 & 3 close and switches 1 & 4 open, this will cause
the current to flow through the right hand side of the lamp.
Working of Inverter
 If switches 1 & 4 close and 2 & 3 open then this will force the
current to flow through the left hand side of the lamp.
Working of
Inverter
 So you can see there is a direct current source but the lamp
experiences an alternating current.
 The lamp will not see this as a sine wave however as the sudden
switching will only result in a square wave. The sharp corners of the
square wave can be damaging to electrical equipment so these need
to be smoothed out.
 The switching is also far too fast for a human to do, if you consider the
electricity you receive in the power sockets of your home, this will be
supplied at 50 or 60Hz depending on where in the world you are.
 This means the current needs to reverse direction 50 or 60 times per
second. Working of Inverter
 To achieve the required switching speed, engineers use special
electronic components such as diodes, IGBTs, MOSFETs etc.
 AC Voltage Regulators
 AC voltage regulators are devices or systems designed to maintain a stable and consistent voltage level in an alternating current (AC)
electrical system.
 The main purpose of an AC voltage regulator is to automatically adjust the output voltage to a specified set point, compensating for
variations in the input voltage, load conditions, or other factors that could affect the output.

AC voltage regulator

Tap - Changing voltage Electronic Voltage

regulators Regulators

Tap-changing voltage regulators are typically used in distribution

systems. They consist of a transformer with multiple taps on the Electronic voltage regulators use electronic components like
primary winding and a mechanism that can change the tap transistors, thyristors, or integrated circuits to control the output
position. The tap position is adjusted based on the detected voltage. These regulators are more precise and faster in adjusting
output voltage, aiming to maintain it at a desired level despite the output voltage compared to tap-changing regulators. They are
fluctuations in the input voltage or load. often used in sensitive electronic equipment and applications that
require a high degree of voltage stability.
Applications
 Residential and Commercial Buildings:
 They ensure that the voltage supplied to appliances and devices remains within a safe and acceptable range, protecting
sensitive electronic equipment from voltage fluctuations.
 Industrial Processes:
 Voltage-sensitive machinery and equipment require a stable power supply to operate efficiently and avoid damage. AC
voltage regulators help maintain a consistent voltage level, optimizing production processes.
 Hospitals and Laboratories:
 Medical equipment and sensitive laboratory instruments necessitate a steady and precise power supply to function
accurately. Voltage regulators ensure a stable voltage supply in such environments.
 Telecommunications:
 Communication systems, including phone networks and data centres, rely on stable power to maintain uninterrupted
services. AC voltage regulators contribute to maintaining a consistent voltage in these critical applications.
 Overall, AC voltage regulators play a crucial role in ensuring the reliability, safety, and efficiency of electrical
systems across various sectors and applications.
Cycloconverters
 There are two forms of electrical energy is used in the Industries known
as DC (Direct current) and AC (Alternating Current).
 The constant current and voltage are available as per the requirement,
but there are few machines that consist of different voltage ratings,
current ratings, and frequency, etc.
 To overcome this type of problem different electronic devices which are
made up of thyristors or transistors are used such as voltage controller,
Inverter and Cyclo converter and many more.
 Every electronic device has its own different function according to the
configuration of the circuit. Cycloconverters
 A device that converts input power at one frequency to output power at
a different frequency with one stage conversion is called a “Cyclo
converter”.
 Cyclo converter converts the constant frequency AC wave to the
variable frequency AC wave without changing the constant parameters.
Simply it can be called the frequency converter.
Single-Phase Cycloconverter
 The above figure shows the principle of operation of a single-
phase cyclo converter.
 It mainly consists of two groups of rectifiers one forming a
positive group and the other forming the negative group which
is feeding a common load.
 The input to both groups is the same. The waveforms of input
voltage consist of alternately positive and negative half-waves
of frequency.
 The firing pulse is zero, the positive group allows all positive
half-waves to pass through and also converts the negative
half-waves into positive half-waves. Single phase Cycloconverter
 The negative group allows all negative half-waves to come to
it and also converts positive half-waves into the negative ones
according to the firing angle value. This is how the single
frequency cyclo converter works.
Centre Tapped Cycloconverter:
 The centre tapped cyclo converter is shown in the above figure
connected to the transformer. The secondary winding of the
transformer is provided with the centre tappings.
 It consists of four thyristors, two of these thyristors T1 and T3 are
formed as the positive group and the other two T2 and T4 are
formed as the negative group.
 The load is connected in the midpoint of the secondary winding.
During the positive half cycle, T1 and T4 are switched on and
conducted and during the negative half cycle, T2 and T3 are
switched.
Centre Tapped Cycloconverter
 At different firing angled the commutation and the conduction will be
operated.
Three-Phase to Single-Phase
Cycloconverter:
 A three-phase to single-phase cyclo converter is used
to convert the three-phase frequency into the single-
phase frequency.
 These types of converters operate in four quadrants
such as +V, +I, -V, -I in two modes as inverting and
rectifying. These converters operate in the blocking
mode operation.
 The +V and +I are in the rectifying mode and the –V
and –I are in the inverting mode.
 The positive converters will produce the positive
current and the negative converters will produce the
negative current which is given to load respectively.
 Only one converter will be operated at a time hence
these are also called blocking mode cyclo converters. Three phase to Single phase Cycloconverter
Three-Phase To Three-Phase
Cycloconverter
 The three-phase cyclo converter converts the three-phase
fixed ac frequency into variable ac frequency. The three-phase
cyclo converter is formed by the combination of 3 three-phase
to single-phase converters.
 The working is also similar to the three-phase to single-phase
converter but the circuit design will be different as the wye and
delta connections are involved according to the requirement.
 The output waveform will be 120 degrees shifted as the
conduction process in the three-phase cyclo converter involves
the phase shift conduction.
 This is the main principle behind the working of a three-phase Three phase to Three phase Cycloconverter
to three-phase cyclo converter.
 These are the different types of cyclo converters and their
working according to the requirement.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Cycloconverter
 Advantages Of Cycloconverter
 The cyclo converter operates on the line commutation, so additional equipment is not required.
 Due to the single-stage operation technique, the efficiency of the cyclo converter is very high.
 The power transfer is possible at any power factor value.
 The cyclo converter generates the sinusoidal waveform for low output frequency also.
 Failure of the one thyristor will not affect the output of the converter.

 Disadvantages Of Cycloconverter
 Due to the usage of a large number of thyristors the control circuitry becomes complex.
 Power factor is too low at the large values of firing angle.
 The distortion is very high at the lower frequencies.
 Smooth control for step-less output frequency is not possible.
Power Factor Improvements
 The process of increasing the power factor of an electrical system,
which is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power consumed by
the system.
 A low power factor can result in increased energy consumption, reduced
efficiency, and additional costs
 Static Capacitor
 We know that most industries and power system loads are inductive,
which causes a decrease in the system power factor due to lagging
current. To improve the power factor, static capacitors are connected
in parallel with these devices operated on low power factor.
 These static capacitors supply leading current, which balances out Power Factor
the lagging inductive component of the load current.
 This effectively eliminates or neutralizes the lagging component of
the load current and corrects the power factor of the load circuit to
enhance the overall efficiency.
 To enhance system or device efficiency, these capacitor are installed
near large inductive loads, like induction motor and transformer, to
improve the load circuit power factor.
 Power Factor Improvements contd…
 For example, let’s consider a single-phase inductive load shown in Figure 1,
which is drawing lagging current (I), and the load power factor is Cosθ.
 Figure 2 shows the load with a capacitor (C) connected in parallel. As a
result, a current (IC) flows through the capacitor and leads 90° from the
supply voltage. In other words, the capacitor provides leading current, and
in a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the supply voltage by 90°,
which means the voltage lags 90° behind the current. The load current
remains (I), and the vector sum of (I) and (IC) is (I’) which lags behind the
voltage at θ2, as shown in Figure 3.
 Figure 3 demonstrates that the angle of θ2 < θ1, implying that Cosθ2 is less
than Cosθ1 (Cosθ2 > Cosθ1). Therefore, the capacitor improves the load
power factor
 Power Factor Improvements
It is important to note that after power factor improvement, the circuit current
is lower than the low power factor circuit current. Additionally, the active
component of current remains the same before and after power factor
improvement because the capacitor eliminates only the reactive
Component of current. Finally, the Active power (in Watts) remains the
same before and after power factor correction.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages:
 Low losses in static capacitors
 No moving parts, therefore requiring low maintenance
 Ability to work in normal conditions (i.e., ordinary atmospheric conditions)
 No requirement for a foundation for installation
 Lightweight, making them easy to install

 Disadvantages:
 A shorter lifespan for static capacitor banks (around 8-10 years)
 The need to turn the capacitor bank ON or OFF when there is a change in load, which can cause switching surges in
the system.
 Risk of damage if the rated voltage increases beyond its limit
 Synchronous Condenser
 When a synchronous motor operates at no-load and is over-excited, it is called a
synchronous condenser. When a synchronous motor is over-excited, it provides leading
current and works like a capacitor.
 In a synchronous motor, a separate DC source is used to excite the field winding.
Therefore, the input supply only provides current to energize the stator, i.e., the current
provided is in-phase with the supply voltage. So the power factor remains unity.
 The power factor can be adjusted by varying the DC excitation. By increasing the DC
excitation, the power factor varies from lagging to unity and leading power factor. When
the DC excitation increases, the field windings are over-magnetized.
 The input supply provides a current component to the stator to compensate for this over-
magnetization. This current leads to the supply voltage, causing a leading power factor or
generating reactive power.
 An inductive load consumes reactive power, causing a lagging power factor, while a
capacitive load generates reactive power, causing a leading power factor.
 A synchronous motor can be used to improve the overall power factor of an electrical Synchronous Condenser
system by adjusting the DC excitation.
 The synchronous motor used specifically for power factor improvement without any
mechanical load is called a synchronous condenser.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 The synchronous condenser is used in parallel with the load to improve the power factor. Improving the power factor reduces
the extra current drawn from the source that is wasted in the power lines. Consequently, it helps in the reduction of electricity
bills and saves energy.When a synchronous condenser is connected across the supply voltage (in parallel), it draws leading
current and partially eliminates the reactive component. This way, the power factor is improved. Generally, synchronous
condensers are used to improve the power factor in large industries.
 Advantages:
• Long lifespan (up to 25 years)
• High reliability
• Allows for stepless adjustment of power factor
• Does not generate harmonics or require maintenance for them
• Faults can be easily removed
• Is not affected by harmonics
• Requires low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)
 Disadvantages:
• High cost (including high maintenance costs), therefore it is mostly used by large power users
• An auxiliary device is needed for operation as synchronous motors have no self-starting torque
Phase Advancer
 The Phase Advancer is a simple AC exciter that connects to the main shaft of a motor and operates with the motor’s rotor
circuit to improve power factor.
 It is commonly used in industries to improve the power factor of induction motors.
 Since the stator windings of an induction motor take lagging current 90° out of phase with voltage, the power factor of the
motor is low.
 By supplying exciting ampere-turns from an external AC source, the current does not affect the stator windings, and the
power factor of the induction motor improves. This process is done by the Phase Advancer.
 Advantages:
 Sufficiently reduces the lagging kVAR (reactive component of power or reactive power) drawn by the motor because
the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency (fs).
 The Phase Advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is unacceptable.

 Disadvantage:
 Using a Phase Advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW).
Static VAR
Compensator (SVC)
 We have covered this topic in a separate article describing Static
VAR Compensator (SVC) including a circuit diagram, construction ,
working principles, and applications.
 You can read the article to learn how SVCs are used for power
factor improvement.
 The following power factor improvement in a three-phase system by
connecting a capacitor bank in:
 Delta connection
 Star Connection

Static VAR Compensator

 Thermal Management in Power
Electronics
 Thermal management is a critical aspect of power electronics design to
ensure the reliable and efficient operation of electronic components and
systems.
 Proper thermal management helps in controlling temperature, preventing
overheating, and maximizing the performance and lifespan of power
electronics.
 Here are key considerations and techniques for thermal management in
power electronics:
 Heat Dissipation and Heat Sinks:
Thermal Management
 Efficient heat dissipation is crucial. Heat sinks with appropriate surface
area and materials (e.g., aluminum, copper) are used to dissipate excess
heat generated by electronic components.
 Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs):
 High-quality TIMs, such as thermal paste or pads, are used to enhance
heat transfer between the component and the heat sink, improving overall
thermal conductivity.
Thermal Management in Power Electronics
contd…
 Cooling Systems:

 Active cooling systems like fans, liquid cooling, or phase change materials are utilized to maintain temperatures within
acceptable ranges, especially for high-power applications.
 Thermal Analysis and Modeling:
 Conduct thermal simulations and modeling using specialized software to predict temperature distributions and
hotspots within the power electronics system, allowing for optimized component placement and design.
 Material Selection:
 Choose materials with good thermal conductivity and low thermal resistance to facilitate efficient heat transfer
throughout the system.
 Optimized Packaging:
 Design power electronics packaging to allow for efficient heat dissipation while maintaining structural integrity.
Enclosures and housings should be designed with heat dissipation in mind.
 Efficient Layout and Placement:
 Arrange components and layout PCBs in a manner that minimizes thermal gradients and ensures even distribution of
heat. Consider the proximity of high-heat components to aid in thermal balance.
Thermal Management in Power
Electronics

contd…
Thermal Monitoring and Control:
 Implement temperature sensors strategically throughout the system to monitor component temperatures. Use this
data to adjust the system operation or activate cooling mechanisms as needed.
 Thermal Budgeting:
 Develop a thermal budget to ensure that each component stays within specified temperature limits, considering
factors such as ambient temperature and maximum allowable junction temperature.
 Thermal Protection:
 Implement thermal protection mechanisms that shut down the system or adjust performance when temperatures
exceed safe limits, preventing damage to components.
 Thermal Testing and Validation:
 Perform extensive testing under various load conditions and environmental temperatures to validate the thermal
design and ensure compliance with specifications.
 Efficiency Improvement:
 Effective thermal management contributes to improved efficiency by reducing losses associated with high
temperatures and improving overall system performance.
 EMC Compliance
 EMC stands for electromagnetic compatibility.
 Every electronic device/machine on the market must be EMC compliant, meaning it must fulfill the EMC regulations and
standards defined by the country where the product is sold.
 An EMC complaint product must
 NOT interfere with other devices/machines in its environment (emission).
 NOT being upset by other devices/machines in its environment (immunity).
 NOT interfere with itself (signal integrity).
 NOT be destroyed or malfunction when touched by a human (electrostatic discharge, ESD).
 EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility) compliance is a critical aspect of designing and manufacturing power electronics to
ensure that they operate without interfering with other electronic devices or being interfered with by external
electromagnetic sources.
 EMC Compliance contd…

 In the picture below, you see a vending machine as an EMC

victim. The machine (victim) must show a certain immunity
against electromagnetic emissions e.g. from mobile phones
(over the air) or from high power machines (over the power
lines). In addition, the user which touches the display may
produce an electrostatic discharge (ESD) which must not
destroy the machine.
 There are other common abbreviations around EMC:
 EMI (Electromagnetic Interference)

EMC
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge)
 EMI vs. EMC
 EMI stands for electromagnetic interference. EMI means that one electronic device/machine A is causing disturbance to
another electronic device/machine B, which is in the surrounding of device/machine A.
 What is the difference between EMC and EMI?
 An EMC compliant product has to be tested on EMI during its development.
 For an EMC compliant product, EMI should not happen any more. This is due to the fact, that EMC compliant products
proved their electromagnetic immunity to be high enough and their electromagnetic emission to be low enough to work
seamlessly in its predefined environment.
 EMI can happen over the air (radio frequency interference, RFI) or over power and signal lines of a product.
 Here some examples of EMI:
 EMI over power lines: Your TV shows starts to flicker every time you use your coffee grinder or mixer in the kitchen.
This would mean that your TV got upset over its power line connection, because the grinder or mixer emits some
disturbances back into the power lines.
 EMI over the air: You are listening to some music over your audio equipment. From time to time, you can here a noise
coming out of the speakers. This may be caused by your mobile phone e.g. when a short message (SMS) arrives. The
radio frequency signals of the mobile phone could disturb your audio equipment.
 ESD vs. EMC
 ESD stands for electrostatic discharge. Every EMC compliant product has to be tested on ESD during its development. This
means that EMC compliant products should withstand certain electrostatic discharges of e.g. 1kV, 15kV or more. This may
sound like very high levels (e.g. compared to your power line voltage of 110V or 230V). However, it is easily possible that
your body is charged to 10kV or more.
 A real life example of ESD for instance is, if you get an electric shock when you are touching your cars door handle after
getting off your car.
 But why is that?
 Friction: While driving, your cars wheels rub on the ground and friction of non-conductive materials (e.g. your cars
wheels) bring electrons from one material to the other.
 Charge: When electrons change from one material to the other, and there is an isolation in between there materials (in
this case air), a charge is created (one material has less electrons (electron-deficient), whereas the other material has
more electrons on its side (electron surplus)).
 Discharge: Now, when you get out of your car, your body “connects” with the ground and therefore has the same
electric potential like ground (0V). However, your cars metal case has still the potential of several kV. If you now touch
the handle of your car, an electrostatic discharge (ESD) happens, and this may hurt (electric shock).