6.

LIFE PROCESSES
LIFE PROCESS
• The maintenance of living organisms must go on even at the conditions, when they are not physically active. Even when we
sit idle and during sleeping, this maintenance job through cells functioning has to go on. The life process includes the
activities performed by the different organs to maintain the body.
• Some of the life processes in the living beings are described below:

 Nutrition
• The process of obtaining energy through consumption of food is called as nutrition.
 Respiration
• The process of acquiring oxygen through breathing and make it available to cells for the process of breaking down of
organic substances into simpler compounds is called as respiration.
 Transportation
• Transportation is the process by which the food and oxygen is carried from one organ to other organs in the body.
 Excretion
• It is the process by which the metabolic waste by-products are removed from the different organs and released out
from the body.
INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 95

Question 1: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi- cellular organisms like humans?
Answer : Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. They have specialised cells and tissues
for performing various necessary functions of the body such as intake of food and oxygen. Unlike unicellular organisms,
multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside environment. Therefore, diffusion cannot meet their oxygen
requirements.

Question 2: What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

Answer : Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally used to decide whether something is
alive or not. However, a living organism can also have movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the
presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether something is alive or not.
Question 3: What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?
Answer : An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The raw materials required by an
organism can be quite varied depending on the complexity of the organism and its environment.

Question 4: What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Answer : Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are essential for maintaining life.
OSMOSIS & DIFFUSION
 NUTRITION

• The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it is called nutrition.

 NEED OF NUTRITION
• Organisms need energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need various raw
materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided by nutrients.

 NUTRIENTS
• Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients
and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts and hence are called micronutrients.
• TYPES OF NUTRITION:

 Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic
nutrition. Green plants and blue-green algae follow the autotrophic mode of nutrition.

 Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism is called
heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms; other than green plants and blue-green algae follow heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 TYPES OF NUTRITION
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Autotrophic organisms are able to produce organic matter from simple inorganic materials. They consequently create their
own food—but require a source of energy to do this.
 Photoautotrophs harvest energy from light to produce organic matter.
 Chemoautotrophs use energy from inorganic reactions in the environment to drive the creation of organic matter.

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

Heterotrophic nutritrion is typical of animals. These organisms eat organic matter in other organisms—either alive (as
hunters) or
dead (as scavengers).

Saprotrophic organisms are the decay organisms. They digest dead materials using enzymes that they secrete externally.
Fungi and many bacteria are saprotrophes.

Parasites (biotrophs) feed on living organisms without killing them.

Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into two types :

• saprophytic nutrition
• holozoic nutrition.
 TYPES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
o Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition; the organism secretes the digestive juices on the food. The food is
digested while it is still to be ingested. The digested food is then ingested by the organism. All the decomposers follow
saprophytic nutrition. Some insects; like houseflies; also follow this mode of nutrition.
o Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition; the digestion happens inside the body of the organism, i.e. after the food is
ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of nutrition
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
STEPS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

 Sunlight activates chlorophyll; which leads to

splitting of water molecule.
 The hydrogen; released by splitting of
water molecule is utilized for reduction
of carbon dioxide to produce
carbohydrates.
 Oxygen is the byproduct of
photosynthesis.
 Carbohydrate is subsequently converted
into starch and is stored in leaves and
other storage parts.
 The splitting of water molecules is part
of the light reaction.
 Other steps are part of the dark reaction
during photosynthesis.
 PLANT NUTRITION

• Green plants prepare their

own food.
• They make food in the
presence of sunlight.
Sunlight provides energy,
carbon dioxide and water
are the raw materials and
chloroplast is the site where
food is made.
 HOW DO RAW MATERIALS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS BECOME AVAILABLE TO THE PLANT?

 Water comes from soil; through the xylem tissue in roots and stems.
 Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.

• SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

 Photosynthesis is the main way through which the solar energy is made available for different living beings.
 Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms directly or indirectly depend on green
plants for food.
 The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.
 ANIMAL NUTRITION

• Heterotrophic Nutrition: When an organism takes food from another organism, it is called heterotrophic nutrition.
Different heterotrophic organisms follow different methods to take and utilize food. Based on this, heterotrophic nutrition
can be divided into two types:
• Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the digestion of food takes place before ingestion of food. This type of
nutrition is usually seen in fungi and some other microorganisms. The organism secretes digestive enzymes on the food and
then ingests the simple substances. Saprophytes feed on dead materials and thus help in decomposition dead remains of
plants and animals.
Holozoic Nutrition:

In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the ingestion of food.
Thus, digestion takes place inside the body of the organism.
Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz.
• Ingestion
• Digestion
• absorption
• assimilation
• egestion.
 STEPS OF HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

 Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.

 Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules is called digestion. Simple molecules;

thus obtained; can be absorbed by the body.

 Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
 Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food; for energy and for growth and repair is called assimilation.

 Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA:
 NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

• Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows holozoic mode of nutrition.

• The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on protruding into pseudopodia.
• Amoeba surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia and makes a food vacuole. The food vacuole contains the food particle and
water.
• Digestive enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes place. After that, digested food is absorbed from the food
vacuole.
• Finally, the food vacuole moves near the cell membrane and undigested food is expelled out.

NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS

• Human beings are complex animals; which have a complex digestive system.
• The human digestive system is composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands.
• The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, viz. Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and
anus.
• Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.
 STRUCTURE OF
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Mouth or Buccal Cavity:
• The mouth has teeth and tongue.
• Salivary glands are also present in the mouth.
• The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the
sense of taste.
• Tongue helps in turning over the food, so that saliva can
be properly mixed in it.
• Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles
so that swallowing of food becomes easier.
• There are four types of teeth in human beings.
• The incisor teeth are used for cutting the food. The canine
teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking hard
substances.
• The premolars are used for coarse grinding of food. The
molars are used for fine grinding of food.
• Salivary glands secrete saliva.
• Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it easy to
swallow the food.
• Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin.
• Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it into
sucrose.
 STRUCTURE OF
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Stomach:

• Stomach is a bag-like organ.

• Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in churning the food.
• The walls of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric
acid kills the germs which may be present in food.
• Moreover, it makes the medium inside stomach as acidic.
• The acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work.
• The enzyme pepsin; secreted in stomach; does partial digestion
of protein.
• The mucus; secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the
inner lining of stomach from getting damaged from
hydrochloric acid.

Small Intestine:

• It is a highly coiled tube-like structure.

• The small intestine is longer than the large intestine but its
lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine.

• The small intestine is divided into three parts, viz.

1) duodenum
2) jejunum
3) ileum.
 STRUCTURE OF
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Liver:
• Liver is the largest organ in the human body.
• Liver manufactures bile; which gets stored in gall bladder.
• From the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.

Pancreas:

• Pancreas is situated below the stomach.

• It secretes pancreatic juice which contains many digestive enzymes.
• Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepato-
pancreatic duct.
• Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles.
• This process is called emulsification of fat.
• After that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and
glycerol.
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest protein into
amino acids.
• Complex carbohydrates are digested into glucose.
• The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum.
• No digestion takes place in jejunum.
• The inner wall in the ileum is projected into numerous finger-like
structures; called villi.
• Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum
absorption can take place.
• Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen of the ileum so that food can
stay for longer duration in it; for optimum absorption.
•
 STRUCTURE OF
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Large Intestine:
• Large intestine is smaller than
small intestine.
• Undigested food goes into the large
intestine.
• Some water and salt are absorbed
by the walls of the large intestine.
• After that, the undigested food goes
to the rectum; from where it is
expelled out through the anus.
 INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 101

Question 1: What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Answer :
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition

1. Food is synthesised from simple inorganic 1. Food is obtained directly or indirectly from
raw materials such as CO2 autotrophs. This food is broken
and water. down with the help of enzymes.
2. Presence of green pigment 2. No pigment is required in this type of
(chlorophyll) is necessary. nutrition.
3. Food is generally prepared during 3. Food can be prepared at all times.
day time.
4. All green plants and some bacteria 4. All animals and fungi have this type
have this type of nutrition. of nutrition.

Question 2: Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?

Answer :
The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis:
 The raw material CO2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
 Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
 Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants.
 Question 3: What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
Answer : Following are the roles of acid in our stomach:
• The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic medium.
• In this acidic medium, enzyme pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which is a protein-digesting enzyme.
• The hydrochloric acid kills the harmful microbes that enter with food and thus prevents infection of digestive tract.

Question 4: What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Answer :
• Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the breaking down of complex food particles into
simple ones.
• These simple particles can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus transported to all the cells of the body.

Question 5: How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

Answer :
• The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi.
• These villi increase the surface area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many blood vessels are present that
absorb the digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered to each and
every cell of the body.
 RESPIRATION

• The process by which a living being utilizes the food to get energy is called respiration.
• Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy.
• Mitochondrion is the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate).
• ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.

STEPS OF RESPIRATION:

• Breaking down glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is broken
down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvic acid is
composed of 3 carbon atoms.
 Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in mitochondria and the
molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular organism. Respiration is of two types,
viz. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION:
 Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into
carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the end of this process.

 Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted
into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic respiration in microbes; like
yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
KREB CYCLE
Pain in Leg Muscles on Running:
When someone runs too fast, he may experience a throbbing pain in the leg muscles. This happens because of anaerobic
respiration taking place in the muscles. During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is
compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The deposition of lactic acid causes the pain
the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for some time.

Exchange of Gases:
• For aerobic respiration; organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced during the process
needs to be removed from the body. Different organisms use different methods for intake of oxygen and expulsion of
carbon dioxide. Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple organisms for this purpose. In
plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases.
• In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases.
• Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen; which is dissolved in water; through gills. Since
availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment so the breathing rate of aquatic organisms is faster.
• Insects have a system of spiracles and tracheae which is used for taking in oxygen.

• Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases. Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the
terrestrial environment so breathing rate is slower compared to what it is in fishes.
 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached
to a system of tubes which open on the outside through the nostrils. Following
are the main structures in the human respiratory system:
Nostrils: There two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner
lining of the nostrils is lined by hairs and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The
mucus and the hairs help in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air.
Further, air is warmed up when it enters the nasal passage
Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal passage.

Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called the voice box.

Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the

collapse of trachea in the absence of air.

Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea; with one bronchus going
to each lung.

Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches; inside the lung.

Alveoli: These are air-sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is composed of a

very thin membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus;
where oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The
exchange of gases; in alveoli; takes place due to pressure differential.
Breathing Mechanism: The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles.
Diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from the abdominal cavity. When diaphragm moves
down, the lungs expand and air is inhaled. When diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air is exhaled.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 105

Question 1: What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to obtaining
oxygen for respiration?
Answer : Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen
present in the water. Air contains more O2 as compared to water. Since the content of O2 in air is high, the terrestrial
animals do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals, terrestrial animals do not have
to show various adaptations for better gaseous exchange.

Question 2: What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various organisms?
Answer : Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a three carbon molecule called Pyruvate. Pyruvate is
further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
The breakdown of glucose by different pathways can be illustrated as follows.
In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the absence of oxygen whereas in mitochondria, the
breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of oxygen.

Question 3: How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?

Answer : Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration.
The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to four O 2 molecules that are obtained from breathing.
It thus forms oxyhaemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated.
This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart.
After giving away O2 to the body cells, blood takes away CO2 which is the end product of cellular respiration.
Now the blood becomes de-oxygenated.
Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO 2, CO2 is mainly transported in the dissolved form. This de-oxygenated blood
gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.
Question 4: How are the lungs designed in
human beings to maximize the area for
exchange of gases?
Answer : The exchange of gases takes place
between the blood of the capillaries that
surround the alveoli and the gases present in
the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for
exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with
air during the process of inhalation as ribs are
lifted up and diaphragm is flattened. The air
that is rushed inside the lungs fills the
numerous alveoli present in the lungs.

Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli.

These numerous alveoli increase the surface
area for gaseous exchange making the process
of respiration more efficient.
 TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS

• Circulatory System: The circulatory system is responsible for transport of various substances in human beings. It is
composed of the heart, arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the role of the carrier of substances.

• HEART
• Heart is a muscular organ; which is composed of cardiac muscles. It is so small that it can fit inside and adult’s fist. The
heart is a pumping organ which pumps the blood. The human heart is composed of four chambers, viz. right auricle, right
ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle.
• Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
• Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
• Arteries: These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs. Pulmonary
arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs; where oxygenation of blood takes
place.
• Veins: These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from different organs to the heart. Pulmonary
veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Valves are present in veins to prevent
backflow of blood.
• Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.
 Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various substances in the body. Blood is
composed of plasma, blood cells and platelets.

 Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a pale colored liquid which is mostly composed of water. Blood plasma forms the
matrix of blood.

 Blood Cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and White Blood Cells (WBCs).

 Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of haemoglobin which is a pigment.
Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen happens through
haemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also transported through haemoglobin.

 White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play important role in the immunity.

 Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a defense mechanism which prevents
excess loss of blood; in case of an injury.

 Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. Lymph is formed from the fluid which leaks from
blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular spaces in the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and
finally returns to the blood capillaries. Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
 Structure of Heart
• Heart us a muscular pumping organ that pumps out the
blood into the blood vessels.
• The size of heart is as big as our fist.
• It is situated in between the lungs slightly tilted towards
left.
• Human heart has four chamber.
• The four different chambers are meant to prevent the
mixing of oxygenated or oxygen rich and deoxygenated or
carbon dioxide rich blood.
• The different chambers of the heart are atrium(upper
chamber) and ventricles(lower chamber). There are two
atrium i.e. left atrium and right atrium separated by a
interarticular septum.
• The walls of atriums are thin to receive the blood through
vein.
• The two inferior chambers of the heart are right and left
ventricles separated by an interventricular septum.
• Ventricles pumps blood through the arteries so they have
thicker walls as compared to atrium (as they only receive
the blood)
 Working of heart

• Blood from different parts of the body comes to the right

atrium.
• This deoxygenated blood is brought from the upper part of the
body through the superior vena cava and from the lower part
of the body through the inferior vena cava.
• When the right atrium contracts, the valves open under
pressure and the blood is forced into the right ventricles.
• Tricuspid valve prevents the backflow of blood.
• Then the right ventricles contracts, blood is pumped in the
pulmonary artery(the only artery which carries blood rich in
carbon dioxide). It carries blood to lungs for diffusion and
exchange of gases.
• In the lungs exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes
place. After the blood has received oxygen from the lungs and
give off carbon dioxide, the oxygenated blood returns to the
left atrium.
• Pulmonary veins brings this oxygenated blood from the lung
to the left atrium.
• When the left atrium contracts, blood is transferred to the left
ventricles, which expands.
 Working of heart
• The aperture between the left atrium and left
ventricle is guarded by a valve called bicuspid
valve.
• The walls of left ventricles is three or four
times thicker than the wall of right ventricle, as
it pumps blood to the body.
• When the left ventricles contracts, the oxygen
rich blood is pumped into the aorta for
circulation to different parts of the body.
• The opening of aorta is also guarded by a valve
called Aortic Valve.
• Deoxygenated blood is collected from
different parts of the body by small veins.
• This open into larger veins, which bring the
blood back to the right atrium.
 Double Circulation
• In the human heart, blood passes
through the heart twice in one cardiac
cycle.
• This type of circulation is called
double circulation. One complete
heart beat in which all the chambers
of the heart contract and relax once is
called cardiac cycle.
• The heart beats about 72 times per
minute in a normal adult.
• In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps
out 70 mL blood and thus about 4900
mL blood in a minute.
• Double circulation ensures complete
segregation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood which is
necessary for optimum energy
 TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
• Plants have specialized vascular tissues for
transportation of substances. There are two
types of vascular tissues in plants, viz. xylem
and phloem.

• Xylem: Xylem is responsible for

transportation of water and minerals. It is
composed of trachieds, xylem vessels, xylem
parenchyma and xylem fiber. Trachieds and
xylem vessels are the conducting elements.
The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants
which runs from roots to stem and right up to
the veins of leaves.

• Phloem: Phloem is responsible for

transportation of food. Phloem is composed of
sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and bast fibres. Sieve tubes are
 Ascent of Sap

The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant
parts is called ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in ascent of sap and it
takes place in many steps.
They are explained as follows:
• Root Pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water; from
soil; enters the root hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible
for movement of water up to the base of the stem.
• Capillary Action: A very fine tube is called capillary. Water; or any liquid;
rises in the capillary because of physical forces and this phenomenon is
called capillary action. Water; in stem; rises up to some height because of
capillary action.
• Adhesion-cohesion of Water Molecules: Water molecules make a
continuous column in the xylem because of forces of adhesion and
cohesion among the molecules.
• Transpiration Pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels; in
plants; is called transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates
vacuum which creates a suction; called transpiration pull. The transpiration
pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus water is able to
rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.
• Transport of Food: Transport of food in plants happens because of
utilization of energy. Thus, unlike the transport through xylem; it is a form
of active transport. Moreover, the flow of substances through phloem takes
place in both directions, i.e. it is a two-way traffic in phloem.
INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 110

• Question 1: What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of these
components?
Answer : The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
• Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the various body parts and sends
this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and nitrogenous wastes.
• The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to various organs or from various
organs back to the heart.
• Question 2: Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds?
Answer : Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling themselves
when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, these
animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body
temperature.
• Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory system is more
efficient and can maintain their constant body temperature.

• Question 3: What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Answer : In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues − xylem and phloem. Xylem
conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem transports food materials from
the leaves to different parts of the plant body.
Question 4: How are water and minerals transported in plants?
Answer : The components of xylem tissue (trachieds and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected to form a
continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure,
as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root
xylem to all the plant parts through the interconnected water-conducting channels.
Question 5: How is food transported in plants?
Answer : Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation of food
in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in the tissue increases causing
water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the tissues which have less pressure. This is
helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant. For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is
transported into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.
 EXCRETION

• Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion. Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities.
These need to be removed in time because their accumulation in the body can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.
• The biological process involved in the removal of these harmful metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion.
• Other metabolic activities generate nitrogenous materials which need to be removed. Different organisms use varied strategies
to do this process.
• Many unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding water.
• Whereas complex multi-cellular organisms use specialized organs to perform the same function
 Working of excretory system
• The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
1. Kidney :- Kidneys are bean-shaped structures located on either side of the
backbone and are protected by the ribs and muscles of the back. Each
human adult kidney has a length of 10-12 cm, a width of 5-7 cm and weighs
around 120-170g. The kidneys have an inner concave structure. The blood
vessels, ureter and nerves enter the kidneys through the hilum, which is a
notch at the inner concave surface of the kidney. that a major function of
the kidneys is to remove waste products and excess fluid from the
body. These waste products and excess fluid are removed through the
urine. Each kidney is made up of three sections: the renal cortex, the renal
medulla and the renal pelvis. The blood arrives at the kidney via the renal
artery, which splits into many afferent arterioles. These arterioles go to the
Bowman's Capsules of nephrons, where the wastes are taken out of the
blood by pressure filtration. The renal cortex is the outer layer of the
kidney and the medulla is the inner layer of the kidney.
2. Ureters;- A pair of thin muscular tubes called the ureter comes out of each
kidney extending from the renal pelvis. It carries urine from the kidney to
the urinary bladder.
3. Urinary bladder :- It is a muscular sac-like structure, which stores urine.
The urinary bladder is emptied by the act of urination.
4. Urethra:- This tube arises from the urinary bladder and helps to expel
urine out of the body. In males, it acts as the common route for sperms and
urine. Its opening is guarded by sphincter muscles.
 STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON( FORMATION OF URINE)

• Mechanism of excretion in humans:-

The process of excretion in humans

takes place in the following steps:

• The urine is formed in the nephrons

and involves the following steps:

 Glomerular Filtration

 Tubular Reabsorption

 Secretion
 Mechanism of excretion in humans
1. Glomerular filtration :-
It is the primary step in urine formation. In
this process, the excess fluid and waste products
from the kidney are filtered out of the blood into
the urine collection tubules of the kidney and
eliminated out of the body. The amount of
filtrate produced by the kidneys every minute is
known as Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR).
2. Tubular reabsorption :- It is the absorption
of ions and molecules such as sodium ions,
glucose, amino acids, water etc. Water involves
passive absorption, while glucose and sodium
ions are absorbed by an active process.
3. Secretion:- Potassium ions, hydrogen ions,
and ammonia are secreted out to maintain the
equilibrium between the body fluids.
 FUNCTIONS OF NEPHRON
The functions of the various tubules involved in the process are:
 Glomerulus- Filters the blood
 Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT)- Reabsorb water, ions and
nutrients. They remove toxins and help in maintaining the ionic
balance and pH of the body fluids by secretion of potassium,
hydrogen and ammonia to filtrate and reabsorbing bicarbonate
ions from the filtrate.
 Descending Loop of Henle- is permeable to water and the
filtrate gets concentrated as it is impermeable to electrolytes.
 Ascending Loop of Henle- it is impermeable to water and
permeable to electrolytes. The filtrate gets diluted due to the
movement of electrolytes from the filtrate to the medullary fluid.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)- allows reabsorption of water
and sodium ions. It also helps in maintaining pH and ionic
balance by secretion and reabsorption of ions like PCT.
 Collecting Duct- a large amount of water is reabsorbed from the
filtrate by the collecting duct.
• The urinary bladder is stretched and gets filled with urine formed
in the nephrons.
• The receptors present on the walls of the urinary bladder send
signals to the Central Nervous System, thereby, allowing the
relaxation of sphincter muscles to release urine.
• This is known as micturition.
 EXCRETION IN PLANTS

• Plants have no special organs for removal of wastes. The

waste products of respiration and photosynthesis are used
as raw materials for each other. Oxygen gas produced as a
by-product of photosynthesis is used up during respiration
and carbon dioxide produced during respiration is used up
during photosynthesis.

• Excretion is carried out in the plants in the following ways:

 The gaseous wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water
vapour are removed through stomata of leaves and
lenticels of stems.
 Some waste products collect in the leaves and bark of
trees. When the leaves and bark are shed, the wastes are
eliminated.
 Some waste products are rendered harmless and then
stored in the plant body as solid bodies. Resins, gum,
rubber and essential oils are some such wastes.
 ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
• A human being can function with even one kidney but
in case both the kidneys malfunction or do not
function then a patient needs a artificial kidney, this
treatment is called dialysis. The patients blood is
passed through a dialysis machine which filters the
wastes from blood and returns the clean blood.
• An artificial kidney is a device to remove
nitrogenous waste products from the blood
through dialysis.
• Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a
semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank filled with
dialysing fluid.
• In hemodialysis, blood is removed from the body and
filtered through a man-made membrane called a
dialyzer, or artificial kidney, and then the filtered
blood is returned to the body.
• The average person has about 10 to 12 pints of blood;
during dialysis only one pint (about two cups) is
 INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 112

• Question 1: Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.

Answer : Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons, approximately 1-1.5
million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, and a long renal tubule.

• Functioning of a nephron:
• The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries
associated with glomerulus.

• The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.

• In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively
reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.

• The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.

• From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct.
Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.

• The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets
Question 2: What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Answer : Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell vacuoles or as
gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off.
Question 3: How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
Answer : The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes present in the body.
Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such as Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also regulates the
amount of urine produced.

Question 5: How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place? Answer : Fats are present in the
form of large globules in the small intestine. The small intestine gets the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic
juice respectively from the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into
smaller globules so that the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes
place in the small intestine.
Question 6: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
Answer : Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the food for easy swallowing. It
contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar.

Question 10: What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
Answer : Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for cellular respiration.
Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to
deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.