 What we have did so far:

◦ First chapter is the introduction

◦ Chapter 2, chapter 3 and chapter 4 explain the
three major steps in engineering design
process. These steps are:
 Problem statement
 Requirement Specification
 Concept generation and evaluation
◦ When you finish these three steps, it means the
engineering design process is finished.
◦ A design process is used to select a technical
concept, according to the requirements.

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 Now we are interested in translating the selected concept into
a solution (design) so that the requirements can be satisfied.
 It means that now we are going to design the system.
 In system design phase, there are two steps:
◦ System structure
◦ System behavior

 System Structure: (Chapter 5)

 A meaningful representation (at abstract level) of the system.
 We use a technique which is called functional decomposition.
 Functional decomposition (breakdown) is a process in which a
systems is designed by finding its overall functionality and
then decomposing (dividing) it into subsystems

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Team of engineers who build a system need:
 An abstraction (‫ )التجريد‬of the system
 An unambiguous (without any doubt)
communication medium
 A way to describe the subsystems
◦ Inputs
◦ Outputs
◦ Behavior
 Functional Decomposition
◦ Function – transformation from inputs to outputs
◦ Decomposition – to divide or breakdown one piece
into many pieces… OR….generating PARTS from
the WHOLE
◦ In other words, divide the main function of your
system into many subfunctions.

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 Functional decomposition is a recursive process (a recursive
process is the one which repeats again and again) that describes
the functionality of all system components.

 It is similar to the mathematical concept of a function: y =f(x).

 In this function there is an input x, an output y, and a transformation

between the in­put and output f().

 This is easily extended to the case of multiple inputs and outputs

 In functional decomposition, we define:

◦ -the inputs, the outputs, and the transformation (translation) be­
tween the inputs and outputs (the functionality).

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 Bottom-Up Design Approach:
◦ In this case the designer starts with basic components and combine them to
create the final system.
◦ For example , consider the case of making a car. In the bottom-up approach, you
have pieces of the car, such as the tires, motor, axle, transmission, alternator, and
they are combined together to make a car.
◦ The final system depends upon the available parts. In other words, the parts are
given, and from them a complete system is created.
◦ In other words, you have the PARTS, and you are making a WHOLE.
◦ Another example: LEGO (for kids)

 Top-Down Design Approach:

◦ The designer has an overall vision (functionality) of what the final system must do
◦ The main problem or functionality is divided into components or subsystems
◦ Each subsystem is further refined and divided.
◦ For example, In the example of car, now we don’t have the information about
components. We only know the overall functionality of the car.

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 Pros and Cons of Top Down:
◦ It might appear that the top-down is better, since it starts with the overall goal
and from that goal, a solution is developed.
◦ However, a top-down design may result in vertical thinking
◦ The designer cannot create a top-down design in a vacuum without bottom-up
knowledge of existing tech­nology.
◦ To summarize, it looks simple but it is an IDEAL approach.
 Pros and cons of Bottom-up:
◦ It allows the designer to take different technologies and from them create
something new
◦ It is applicable when there are constraints on the compo­nents that can be used.
◦ To summarize, it is good when you know what components you will use. But it is
complex as you the detailed knowledge of components from the very beginning. It
is practical but more time consuming as compared to TOP DOWN approach.
 In reality, most problems require a combination of both:
◦ Completely top-down approach is not feasible (practical) because the designer
must have an understanding of the bottom level technology.
◦ Likewise, the completely bottom-up is generally not feasible, particularly as the
system complexity grows. For simple systems, it may work but for larger systems,
which contains a huge number of components, it is going to be more and more
difficult.

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 Functional decomposition has a strong top-
down flavor, due to the fact that the highest-
level functionality is defined and then further
refined into sub-functions.
 (1) “The functional decomposition
process is repeated until some base
level functionality is reached (achieved)
 (2) A base level functionality is a level
where the modules can be realized
(implemented) with physical
components.”

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 It starts with a definition of the highest level
(Level 0) of system functionality.

 Level 0 is followed by definition of the next level
of the hierarchy that is needed to achieve the
design objective . This is called Level 1 Design.

 The Level 1 design is typically referred to

as the main design ar­chitecture of the
system.

 Design architecture means the organization and

interconnec­tions between modules .

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 Care must be taken at each design level to
ensure that it satisfies the requirements of
the higher level.
 The process is repeated for all the levels of
the design and stops when the detailed
design level is reached (The last level where
you achieve the base level functionality).
 Detailed design is where the problem can be
decomposed no further and the identification
of elements such as circuit components, logic
gates, or software code takes place.
 The number of levels in the design depends
upon the complexity of the problem.

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 Recursively (repeatedly in a loop) divide and
conquer
– Split a module into several submodules
– Define the input, output, and behavior
– Stop when you reach realizable components

Determine Level 0 Determine architecture and

At the detailed Yes
functional N=1 functional requirements for DONE
design level?
requirements modules at Level N

No

N=N+1

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The system must
 Accept an audio input signal source with a

maximum input voltage of 0.5V peak.

 Have adjustable volume control between

zero volume and the maximum volume

level.
 Deliver a maximum of 50W to an 8

speaker.
 Be powered by a standard 120V 60Hz AC

outlet.

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Module Audio Power Amplifier
Inputs (1) Audio input signal: 0.5V peak.
(2) Power: 120 volts AC rms, 60Hz.
(3) User volume control: variable control.
Outputs Audio output signal: ?V peak value. (50 W)
Functionality (1) Amplify the audio input signal to produce a 50W
maximum output signal.
(2) The amplification should have variable user control. The
output volume should be variable between no volume
and a maximum volume level.

audio input signal

Audio Power
audio output signal
Amplifier
power, 120 VAC

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 Audio Amplifier Design

voltage
buffered
amplified
audio input input audio output
Buffer Amplifier High Gain Amplifier signal Power Output Stage
signal signal

DC voltages

Power Supply

power, 120 VAC

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Module Buffer Amplifier
Inputs - Audio input signal: 0.5V peak.
- Power:  25V DC.
Outputs - Audio signal: 0.5V peak.
Functionality Buffer the input signal and provide unity voltage
gain. It should have an input resistance >1M
and an output resistance <100.

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Module High Gain Amplifier
Inputs - Audio input signal: 0.5V peak.
- User volume control: variable control.
- Power:  25V DC

Outputs - Audio signal: 20V peak.

Functionality Provide an adjustable voltage gain, between 1 and 40. It
should have an input resistance >100k and an output
resistance <100.

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Module Power Output stage
Inputs - Audio signal: 20V peak
- Power:  15V DC

Outputs - Audio signal: Audio signal with 50W maximum output

Functionality Provide an audio signal with desired power ratings (50 W)

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Module Power Supply
Inputs - Power: 120V AC

Outputs - Power: it can provide multiple DC voltages (25V and 15

V) to different components in the system
Functionality It will take AC voltage from the external environment and
generates different DC voltages for various components
in the system as per their requirements.

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 Electronics Design
 Digital Design
 Software Design
 See the book or more in-depth examples3

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The system must
 Measure temperature between 0 and 200C.
 Have an accuracy of 0.4% of full scale.
 Display the temperature digitally, including one
digit beyond the decimal point.
 Be powered by a standard 120V 60Hz AC outlet.
 Use an RTD (thermal resistive device) that has an
accuracy of 0.55C over the range. The resistance
of the RTD varies linearly with temperature from
100Ω at 0C to 178Ω at 200C.

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 Ambient
Temperature Digital
Digital Thermometer Temperature
Power, Display
120 VAC

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Module Digital Thermometer

Inputs - Ambient temperature: 0-200C.

- Power: 120V AC power.

Outputs - Digital temperature display: A four digit

display, including one digit beyond the
decimal point.

Functional Displays temperature on digital readout with

ity an accuracy of 0.4% of full scale.

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 BCD0
b0
Ambient b1 BCD1
Temperature VT Analog to Digital . Binary Coded
Temperature 7-Segment LED
Conversion Unit Converter . Decimal (BCD) BCD2
Driver
. Conversion Unit
bN-1 BCD3

+/- x V DC

Power,
120 VAC Power Supply

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Module Temperature Conversion Unit

Inputs - Ambient temperature: 0-200C.

- Power: ?V DC (to power the electronics).

Outputs - VT: temperature proportional voltage. VT= αT,

and ranges from ? to ?V.
Functionali Produces an output voltage that is linearly
ty proportional to temperature. It must achieve
an accuracy of ?%.

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 A/D Converter

Module

Inputs - VT: voltage proportional to temperature that

ranges from ? to ?V.
- Power: ?V DC.
Outputs - bN-1 -b0: ?-bit binary representation of VT.

Functionali Converts analog input to binary digital output.

ty

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 How would you determine the
unknown details in the previous 2
slides?

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 Example of Coupling:
◦ If there are two modules, then at least one connection is required
◦ Similarly, for 3 modules, the maximum number of possible connections
are 3. For 4 modules, the maximum number of possible connections are
6 and so on.
 General formula : Connections (max) = n(n-1)/2
 More the number of connections, more will be the coupling and
vice versa.
 In other words, the modules will be more coupled, if more data
is exchanged between them.
 Phenomena of highly coupled systems
◦ A failure in 1 module propagates
◦ Difficult to redesign 1 module
 Phenomena of low coupled systems
◦ Discourages reutilization of a module

How can we reduce the coupling ???

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 Coupling can be reduced by maximizing the
cohesion
 What is cohesion?

◦ It refers to how focused a module is.

 Advantages of highly cohesive systems
◦ Easy to test modules independently
◦ Simple (non-existent) control interface
 Disadvantage of low cohesive systems
◦ Less reuse of modules

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 Design Level 0
◦ Present a single module block diagram with inputs and outputs
identified.
◦ Present the functional requirements: inputs, outputs, and
functionality.
 Design Level 1
◦ Present the Level 1 diagram (system architecture) with all
modules and interconnections shown.
◦ Describe the theory of operation. This should explain how the
modules work together to achieve the functional objectives.
◦ Present the functional requirements for each module at this
level.
 Design Level N (for N>1)
◦ Repeat the process from design Level 1 as necessary.
 Design Alternatives
◦ Describe the different alternatives that were considered, the
tradeoffs, and the rationale for the choices made. This should
be based upon concept evaluation methods in Chapter 4.

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