Chapter Three

Geometric
Design Of
Highways

1
 Introduction
 Highway geometric design involves the design of geometric
elements of a highway and fixation of standards with respect
to various components
 Its dictated within economic limitations to satisfy the
requirements of traffic in designing elements such as
vCross-section
vHorizontal alignment
vVertical alignment
vSight distances
vLateral and vertical clearances
vIntersection,
v etc.

2
 Cont.…
Ø The safety, efficiency, and economic operation of a highway is
governed to a large extent by the care with which the
geometric design is worked out
Ø The engineer has to consider the following points when selecting
design standards
 Volume and composition of traffic in the design year
 Faulty geometries are costly to rectify at a later date
 The design should be consistent with
 The design should embrace all aspects of design including
signs, markings, lighting, etc.
 The road should be considered as an element of the total
environment
 The design should minimize the total transportation cost
 Safety should be built in the design
 The design should be enable all road users to use the facility
3
 Design controls and criteria

The choice of design controls and criteria is

influenced by the following factors:
qFunctional classification of the road
qNature of the terrain
qTraffic volumes expected on the road
qDesign vehicle
qDesign speed
qSight distance
qDensity and character of the adjoining land
use and
qEconomic and environmental considerations

4
 Road Functional Classification
(or Road Hierarchy)
Roads generally serve a multitude of
purposes:
• As through route - for long distance traffic
• As local route – for local traffic
• In urban and rural areas –urban roads/rural roads
• For fast and slow vehicles – 2 wheels to 10+
wheels
• As servicing/access roads
• For use by pedestrians
• For parking areas
• For Street Vendors, etc

5
 Rationale for a hierarchical system
Such a mix of uses Reduces SAFETY,
EFFICIENCY, and CAPACITY

Hence a hierarchical road system is

necessary

Roads are therefore classified according to their

respective functions in terms of the character of the
services they are providing

6
 Objectives in setting a hierarchy
To obtain best use of an existing network
To ensure that each type of traffic is using the
most appropriate route
To minimize the risk to users and to the natural
built environment
To ensure better management, maintenance
regimes and design policies
To ensure funding for routes is targeted
appropriately
To offer network users a choice for how to
travel

7
 Road Hierarchy (The Ethiopian way)
Roads linking centers of international importance and roads
Trunk roads terminating at international boundaries and have a present
AADT 1000 and as low as 100.

Roads linking centers of national or international importance

Link roads and have over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values
can range between 50-10,000 AADT.

Roads linking centers of provincial importance and their first

Access roads year AADTs between 30-1,000 .

Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a

Collector roads more important center, or to higher class roads and their
first year AADTs between 25-400 .

Any road link to a minor center such as market and local

Feeder roads locations with first year AADT between 0-100.

8
 Nature of Terrain

9
 Nature of Terrain
Cont…
 The location and geometric design elements such as
gradients, sight distance, cross-sections, radius of
curvature, speeds, etc. of a highway are affected by
topography, physical features, and land use.
 Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four
classes as follows:
 FLAT: Flat or gently rolling country,
which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having
continuously unrestricted horizontal
and vertical alignment (transverse terrain
slope up to 3 percent).

10
 Cont.… Nature of Terrain
 ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the
slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where
occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in
some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope
from 3 percent to 25 percent).

11
 Cont.… Nature of Terrain
 MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and
river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions
on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves
long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse
terrain slope from 25 percent to 75 percent).


12
 Cont.… Nature of Terrain
 ESCARPMENT: Escarpment include situations where
switchback roadway sections are used or side hill transverse
sections which cause considerable earthwork quantities, with
transverse terrain slope in excess of 75 percent.


13
 Traffic
A further factor influencing the development of road
design standards, and in particular the design speed,
is the volume and composition of traffic.
The design of a road should be based in part on factual
traffic volumes.
Traffic indicates the need for improvement and
directly affects features of design such as widths,
alignments, and gradients.
Traffic data for a road or section of road, including
traffic trends, is generally available in terms of
annual average daily traffic (AADT).

14
 Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT Cont.….

15
 Shoulder Widths Cont...

16
 Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

17
 Cont...

18
 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Class DC8 (Paved) Cont...

19
 Design Vehicle
 Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are
controls in geometric design.
 Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power
to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a
turn, and vehicle height and width.
 The road elements affected include the selection of maximum
gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction
design.


& Truck
20
 Cont...

21
 Speed
 The speed that a driver adopts on a road depends on:

v Physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings

v Weather conditions in the area
v Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these
vehicles, and
v Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by law
or by mechanical devices fitted in vehicles
 Design speed is the max safe speed selected for designing specific
section of road considering the terrain, land use, classification of
the road, etc.
 Design elements such as:-
ü lane and shoulder widths
ü horizontal radius
ü Super elevation
ü A well as sight distance and
gradient are directly related to,
22
and vary, with design speed.
 Cont...

Density and Character of Adjoining Land

Use
Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the presence of
other vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes,
physical and right-of-way constraints, together with
23 pedestrian and safety considerations
 Sight Distance
 Sight Distance is the distance visible to the driver of a vehicle ahead of
him
q Stopping sight distance
q Passing sight distance
 For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of
sufficient length so that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles. They must be able to avoid striking an unexpected object on
the traveled way.
 Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distance to enable
drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers,
without risk of accident.
 Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight
distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their
length.

24
Stopping sight distance
• A distance that must be enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop
before reaching a stationery object in its path
•Stopping sight distance is the total distance traveled by a given vehicle before
stopping during three time intervals
• the time to perceive the hazard
• the time to react
• the time to stop the vehicle
• during the first two intervals, the vehicle travels at full speed, during the
third interval, its speed is reduced to zero, and must happen before hitting
an object or vehicle ahead.
• As speed increases the reaction time increases or ????
speed (km/h) Perception- reaction time (sec)
16 3.5
32 3.25
48 3.0
64 2.75
80 2.50
25 96 2.0
 Stopping sight distance Cont.…
ü Reaction distance, The distance traveled
before the brakes are applied is:
Dr = 0.278 Vt
ü Braking distance, the distance traversed while braking
• V2
Db 
254 f  G 
Db = braking distance
V = initial velocity when brakes are
applied
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)

26 ü
 Cont.…
Stopping sight distance

As per ERA Manual 2013

27
SSD Example
 A vehicle is traveling at uniform velocity, at t the driver
0
realizes a vehicle is stopped in the road ahead and the
driver brakes
 Grade = + 1%
 t = 0.8 sec
P/R
 The stopped vehicle is just struck, assume v = 0
f
 The braking vehicle leaves skid marks that are 405 feet
long
 Assume normal deceleration (11.2 ft/sec2)
 Should the police office at the scene cite the driver for
traveling over the 55 mph posted speed limit?

28
SSD Example
SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30({a/g} ± G)

Stopping distance = 405 feet

405 feet = 1.47u(0.8 sec) + ________u2________
30({11.2/32.2} + 0.01)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
30(0.358)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
10.73
Solving for u, u = 59.9 mph

29
 Cont.…

30
 Cont.…
Stopping Sight Distance for Unpaved road

31
32
33
 Passing Sight Distance
• Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver
on 2-lane two-way highway
• Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle
and not cut off passed vehicle when upon return to lane
• Assumes:
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle
as it reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver
and velocity of the passing vehicle is about 16km/hr
greater than that of the passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming
vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its lane
34
 Cont.… Passing Sight Distance

35
 Cont.… Passing Sight Distance
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d1 = distance traveled during perception/reaction time and

distance traveled while accelerating to passing speed
and when vehicle just enters the left lane
at1
d1  0.278t1 (V  m  )
2
where
t = perception/reaction time and the time for
acceleration, for example,70-85km/h, t=4 sec, for
100-110 km/h, t=4.5sec
V= design speed km/h
a = acceleration (km/hr/sec), for 70-110 km/h, a =2.4
m = is difference in speed of passed vehicle and
36 passing vehicle in km/h
 Cont.… Passing Sight Distance
d2 = distance traveled during overtaking time
d2 = 0.278 V2t2
Where V2 is average speed of passing vehicle, km/h,
t2 is time passing vehicle occupies left lane, in second
d3 = clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the
opposing vehicle at the moment the passing vehicle returns to the
right lane. Usually d3 varies b/n 30 and 90m.

d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time

the passing vehicle is in the left lane. (d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2 )
37
 Cont…

38
 Exercise
A vehicle moving at a speed of 80kph is slowing traffic
on a two lane highway. What passing distance is
necessary, in order for a passing manoeuvre to be
carried out safely?
Use PRT=2.5sec, passing vehicles acc. rate= 0.67m/sec2,
Vo of passing =80kph, V of opposing vehicle =95kph,
Lengths of all veh = 6.7m, clearance distances b/n
passing and slow veh at lane change and at re-
entry=6m, clearance distance b/n passing and
opposing vehs at lane re-entry=75m.
PRT: Perception Reaction Time
 Elements of Road Cross-section

40
 41
41
42
 Elements of Road Cross-section
 Principal elements
 Traffic lanes
 Auxiliary lanes – climbing lanes, acceleration and
deceleration lanes, etc
 Shoulders
 Median (for divided roads)
 Marginal elements include
 Median and roadside barrier
 Curbs
 Gutters
 Guard rails
 sidewalks,
 Side slopes,
 Cross slopes

43
 Elements of Road Cross-section
Width of travel lanes
Usually vary from 3 to 3.65 m, but
occasionally 2.7 m lane width is used in
urban areas where the traffic volume is low
and there is extreme right-of-way constraints
On two way two lane rural roads, accident rate
for large trucks increases as the traveled way
decreases from 6.5 m
The capacity decrease significantly as the lane
width decrease from 3.0 m
44
 Elements of Road Cross-section
Shoulders
 Serves for an emergency stop of vehicles
 Used to laterally support the pavement structure
 Shoulder width
 Recommended shoulder width is in the range of 1.8
to 2.4 m
 for highways serving large number of trucks and on
highways with high traffic volumes and high
speeds, shoulder width of 3.0 to 3.5 m is preferable
 Minimum shoulder width 0.5 m on the lowest type of
roads
 Shoulders should be flush with the edge of the traveled
lane and be sloped to facilitate drainage (2-4 % if
paved, 4-6 % if not paved)

45
 Elements of Road Cross-section
Median – section of divided road that separates lanes in
the opposite directions.
Functions:
 Provide recovery area during emergency
 Provide stopping area for left and U-turning
vehicles
 Provide refuge for pedestrians
 Reduce headlight glare
 Median can be either raised, flush or depressed
 Median width vary between 0.6 up to 24 m or more
depending on the availability of right-of-way

46
Raised Median
Depressed Median

Flush Median

Flush Median
47 Flush Median
 Elements of Road Cross-section
 Median barrier – a longitudinal structure used to prevent an errant vehicle
from crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled
way for traffic in the opposite directions
 Roadside barrier – protect vehicles from causing hazards onto roadside
and shield pedestrians
 Curbs – raised structures used mainly on urban roads to delineate
pavement edge and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used:
 To control drainage
 Improve aesthetic
 Reduce right-of-way
 Are classified as
 Barrier curbs – relatively high designed for preventing vehicles
from leaving the toad
 Mountable curbs – are designed so that vehicles can cross them


48
 Elements of Road Cross-section
 Gutters – drainage ditches located on the pavement side of a
curb to provide the principal drainage facility for the
highway
 Guard rails – longitudinal barriers on the outside of sharp
curves at sections with high fills (greater than 2.5 m)

 Side walks – provided on urban or rural roads

When pedestrian traffic is high along main or high
speed roads
When shoulders are not provided on arterials even
when pedestrian traffic is low
In urban areas, sidewalks are provided along both
sides of streets to serve pedestrians access to
49
schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit stops.
 Guard Rail Side Walkway
50
51
Road Gutter
 Road way and Drainage Structure

52
 Elements of Road Cross-section
 Cross-slopes – to enhance the flow of surface water
 High type pavement – 1.5 –2 %
 Intermediate type of pavement – 1.5- 3% and up to 6% for unpaved road.
 Side slopes – provided for stability of earthworks; the slope varies depending on the material type







 Right-of-way – the total land area required for the construction of the roadway
 To accommodate all the elements of the road cross-section
 Planned widening of the road
 Public utility facilities that will be installed along the highway

53
 Horizontal & Vertical Alignment

54 54
 Your Chosen Route
A

But, the road could not have such an alignment with sharp edges!

55 55
 Purpose of horizontal alignment
ü To provide uniform speed
ü To provide good drainage
ü To provide minimum earth work quantity
ü No sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature.

56 56
 Horizontal Alignment consists of
ü Straight lines
ü Circular Curves: a curve connecting two tangents in
different direction.

Types of Curves
v Simple circular curves: consists of tangent and a single curve
v Compound Curves: .curve in the same direction but without any
intervening tangent section
v Reverse Curves: a curve followed by another curve in opposite
direction.
v Broken back curve: a curve followed by another curve in the
same direction with intervening tangent between two curves.

57 57
 Considerations
A proper relation should be established between the
design speed and curvature and their joint relations
with super elevation and side friction. drainage

R1
R
R
R1
R

58 58
 Simple Circular Curves - Terms

∆=deflection angle
L=Length of Curve
C=Chord Length
R=Radius of Curvature
M=Middle Ordinate
E=External Distance
T=Length of Tangent

P.I.=Point of Intersection
TC=Tangent to Circle
CT=Circle to Tangent

59 59
 Degree of Curvature
Arc 20m
Definition

20 2R 1145 .92

 D
D
Chord 360 R R
Definition R
R=10/ sin
D/2 D

20m

R R
D

60
 Relations

T  R tan(  / 2)
C  2 R sin(  / 2)
L  R
E  Rsec(  / 2)  1
M  R1  cos(  / 2)

61 61
62
63
 Super-elevation rate, e
 Is the raising of the outer edge of the road
along a curve in-order to counteract the
effect of radial centrifugal force in
combination with the friction between
the surface and tyres developed in the
lateral direction
 Maximum value is controlled by:
 Climatic conditions: frequency &
amount of snow/icing
 Terrain condition: flat vs. mountainous
 Area type: rural vs. urban
 Frequency of very slow moving
vehicles
 0.1m/m is a logical maximum super-
elevation
 Minimum super-elevation rate is
determined by drainage requirements
 UK emax: 0.07 (rural) & 0.05 (urban)

64 64
 Maximum Degree of Curvature
minimum radius for safety (veh. stability)
Limiting value for a given design speed (given e & mmax)
max
 V2
Rmin 
127e   



The respective maximum Degree of Curvature is:


1145 .92 1145 .92 143240e   
D max   2 
Rmin V 127e    V2
Sharper Curve might justify use of e>e
max or a higher
dependence on tyre friction or both
65
 Super elevation derivation

66
66 66
 Cont…

Where: H=ew
w=width of roadway

67
 Superelevation derivation
R  mg
a=radial acceleration;
m=mass of vehicle;
V=speed of vehicle;
R=Radius of
curvature;
F=Frictional
Resistance;
2 v
F  mV / R
R’=Reaction
When road has no
camber and the VEH is
on the verge of
overturning

a
friction
coefficient of   F / R

mV 2 / R

h
F
mg R’
68
 Stability of a VEH
To avoid overturning
mV 2 h / R  mgb  V 2 h / R  gb
2
where, Radial acceleration=V/R
To avoid side slip

mV 2 / R  mg  V 2 / R  g mV 2 / R
h
F
mg R’
b

69 69
 Stability on Super-elevated Surface
Forces & Equilibrium

Resolving the Forces // and |to the road

(// to the road)
e
Wv 2
1
F  WSin   Cos
gR
(| to the road)
W
Wv 2
WCos  Sin   N
Wv 2
gR
q F
gR
Frictional force, F=mN
N
70
 Frictional force, F=mN &
Wv 2
Relations (cont.)
WCos  Sin   N Wv 2
gR F  WSin   Cos
gR
Wv 2
N  Cos  WSin
gR
Wv 2  Wv 2
 Sin  WCos   Cos  WSin
 gR  gR
 v 2   v2 
Sin   1  Cos   
 gR   gR 
v2

gR
Tan  
v 2
1
gR
But the term has a very small value and could
v 2
be ignored for all practical purposes. Check
gR
using typical values like V=50km/hr; m=0.16;
71 and R=100m. 71
 Relations (cont.)
v2
Thus, Tan    e Where, V=Km/hr
gR
 R=m
e =m/m
e 
v2

V 3.6 

2
V2
m=dimensionless
gR 9.81R 127 R
2
V
Rmin 
127e   

Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO,

Check for ERA Specification

72
 Cont…

73
 Attainment of Superelevation:
The surface of the road is rotated about the
centerline of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the upper
edge, keeping the level of the centreline
constant.
The surface of the road is rotated about the inner
edge, raising the center and the outer edge.
The surface of the road is rotated about the outer
edge depressing the center and the outer edge.

74 74
 Cont
…

75
 Cont…

e
L
C
L
C h2
H
2 - 4% 2 - 4%
h1
Normal Cross-section Rotation about the crown

e
2 - 4%
h
H
Complete elimination of crown h
Rotation about the inner edge
2 - 4%

X-section becomes a straight fall

from one side to another

76 76
 
Cont…

77
 Superelevation transition section consists:
Super elevation runoff section: the roadway length
needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane
cross slope from zero (flat) to full
Superelevation, or vice versa.
Tangent runout section: the roadway length needed to
accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope
from normal cross slope rate to zero (flat), or vice
versa.


78
 Cont…

79
 Cont….

80
 Cont…

Super-elevation is started 1/2 to 1/3

into the tangent with the balance being
applied with in the curve

81
 Shoulder Super-elevation

82 82
 Transition Curves
Spirals are curves which provide a
gradual change in curvature from
tangent to a circular path

Advantages:
•Provides an easy-to-follow
path so that centrifugal force
increases and decreases
gradually; lesser danger of
overturning/ side-slipping

83
84
 Cont…

85
 Transition Curves - Geometry

PI: Point of Intersection

s
TS: Tangent to spiral
SC: Spiral to Circle
CS: Circle to Spiral
ST: Spiral to tangent
Ls: Total length of spiral
Lc: Length of circular curve
qs: Central angle of spiral arc of
length Ls
∆=total deflection angle of the curve
Ys=tangent offset at SC
Xs =
K=abscissa of shifted PC with
reference
S= Shift ofto
theTS
curve
86
 Cont…
Some of the important properties of the spirals are
given below:
L = 2Rθ
θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)
Ts = Ls /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
S = Ls2 / 24Rc
Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc


87
 Length ofofTransition:
The length transition should be determined from the
following two conditions:
1. The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted
in the design should not cause discomfort to the
drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration,
2.

Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc) (meter)
 Where:
V = speed (Km/hr)
Rc = radius of the circular curve (m)


88
 Cont…
2. The rate of change of Superelevation (Superelevation
application ratio) should be such as not to cause higher
gradients and unsightly appearances. Since
Superelevation can be given by rotating about the
centerline, inner edge or outer edge, the length of the
transition will be governed accordingly.

89
 Setting out of transition curve from
tangent

90
 Cont
…

91
 
Cont…

92
93
94
95
96
97
98
Exercises
1) How can you locate the intersection point of the lines of sights when
you set out a simple circular curve by theodolites?

2) In setting out a circular curve you may encounter an obstruction on the route. Describe how
you set out the curve beyond the obstruction point in (i) one section; (ii) in two sections.

3) It is proposed to connect two straight portions of a road that make a deflection of 400 by a
horizontal curve. From a study of the map of the project area, a preliminary design was
produced with a circular curve of 400m radius. On a later date, the design was modified due
to anticipated construction difficulties. The modified design consists of two spirals and a
circular arc. The midpoint of the circular arc is to be shifted from that of the original curve of
400m radius by 4m towards the center ( the P.I). Design the combined curve. The chainage
of the P.I is 25 + 25.80.

4) The elevations of the BVC and EVC of an equal-tangent parabolic vertical curve joining two
grades are to be 224.42m and 226.42m. The first grade is -4% but the second grade is not
established. The approximate length of the curve is 400m. Determine, by using any one
method

i) the station and elevation of the P.I if the station of the BVC is 25 + 00.

ii) the second grade.

iii) the elevation on the vertical curve and the offsets from the grade lines to the curve at 50-m
intervals.
99
iv) the position and elevation of the highest or lowest point if there is any. State which one it is.
 Widening of Highway Curves
Need
Rear wheels don’t follow front wheels,
Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels
To have adequate sight-distances
Drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles
coming from the opposite direction and might thus move
out of a lane when traversing a curve
Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curvesff

 The widening required can be calculated from

We = n *B2/ 2R + V /10√R
Where:
We = total widening
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
100
V = design speed (Km/hr)
100
n = number of lanes
 Cont…

101
 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Centre line of Road Sight distance a measured along
centreline of inside lane

M
Considering a vehicle at A and an
A Sight O
object at O, sight distance
line
should at-least equal to safe
stopping distance.
Ra
di
us

If the angle subtended at the

centre of the circle is 2q, then

SD  2 R 180
  57.3 S 2 R ,
Rm
 Cos  Cos (57.3 S 2 R )
R
m  R (1  Cos ( 28.65S R ))
102 102
 Vertical Curve Alignment
Cont….

103
 § If the elevations above or below the BVC are required, the x-axis may be moved to
the x’-axis and c becomes zero. For these conditions,

Note: The value of r must be assigned its proper algebraic sign. If the curve opens
upward, r is plus; if it opens downward, r is minus. See fig above
104
Solved problem:

A 200m vertical curve is to join two grade lines g1 and g2 which

are -5% and -3%, respectively. The vertex of the intersection of the
grades is at a station of 62 + 00 and the elevation is 1000.00m.
Compute the grade elevations at 20-m intervals throughout the
curve. Use both methods.

105
106
 Elevations of intermediate points on vertical curves
Ø Sometimes it may be necessary to calculate the elevations of points on the curve
at irregular intervals. Such data can be furnished from the equation of the
parabola directly, where x is the horizontal distance in stations beyond the
BVC.

Ø Example: For the example for previous problem , determine the elevation on the
curve at 62 + 25.80.

107
 Location of Highest or Lowest point

108
 Vertical Curve Alignment
Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance is dependent on the type of curve used and the design
speed. For crest curves, sight distance is limited by the curve itself, as
the curve is the obstruction.
For sag curves, sight distance is generally only limited by headlight
range. AASHTO has several tables for sag and crest curves that
recommend rates of curvature, K , given a design speed or stopping sight
distance. These rates of curvature can then be multiplied by the absolute
slope change percentage, A to find the recommended curve length, Lm
(minimum length) .

Lm=KA…………………………………………………….. …….……(1)

Without the aid of tables, curve length can still be calculated. Formulas
have been derived to determine the minimum curve length for required
sight distance for an equal tangent curve, depending on whether the curve
109
is a sag or a crest. Sight distance can be computed from formulas in other
Where:
SSD = required stopping sight distance, ft. or m ,
V = speed, mph or kn/n,
t = perception-reaction time, sec., typically 2.5 sec. for
design,
f = coefficient of friction, typically for a poor, wet
pavement,
g = grade, decimal,
Crest Vertical Curves
• The correct equation is dependent on the design speed. If the sight
distance is found to be less than the curve length, the first
formula below is used, whereas the second is used for sight
distances that are greater than the curve length. Generally, this
requires computation of both to see which is true if curve length
cannot be estimated beforehand.
S<L: Lm= (AS2) /200(√h1+√h2)2………………… …………………………(2)
S>L: Lm= 2s−200(√h+√h2√)2/A………… ………………….………………(3)
Where:
Lm : Minimum Curve Length (m)
A : The absolute difference between g2 and g1 , multiplied by 100 to
translate to a percentage
S : Sight Distance (m)
h1 : Height of driver's eye above roadway surface (m)
h2 : Height of objective above roadway surface (m)
Source: ERA manual 2013
 Where, N=A

From AASHTO, in US
customary form in
(ft)
 Source: ERA manual 2013

114
 Sag Vertical Curves
Design Criteria:
1. Headlight sight distance
2. Rider Comfort
3. Drainage Control
4. Aesthetics (rule of thumb)

115
 Headlight Sight Distance, S
Height of the headlight =600mm
Upward divergence of the light beam = 1 o

(The upward spread of the light beam provides some

additional visible length, but that is generally ignored.)
116
 Length of curve with adequate SD
When S<L:
AS 2 AS 2
L 
200(0.6  S tan  ) 120  3.5 S

When S>L:
200(0.6  S tan  ) 120  3.5S
L  2S   2S 
A A

L=length of curve (m), A=algebraic difference in grade (%), and

S=headlight distance (m)
117
 Length of Curve for comfort
 Considers that both the gravitational and centrifugal forces act in
combination, resulting in a greater effect than on a crest vertical
curve
 Comfort is affected by:
 weight carried, body suspension of the vehicle, and tire flexibility
 Measuring Comfort = Difficult!
 Indicator = radial acceleration is not greater than 0.3 m/s3
 The general expression for such a criterion is: L= AK, Where;
2

AV
 L 
395
 V is the design speed, km/h.
 Usually this length is about 50 percent of that required to satisfy the

118 headlight sight distance at various design speeds (for normal

 Min. Length for Aesthetics
Rule of thumb


Lmin  30 A
Longer curves are necessary for high type of
highways to improve appearance.

119
 or

Where:
N or A : The absolute difference between
g2 and g1 , multiplied by 100 to translate
to a percentage
S : Sight Distance (m)
H : Height of headlight (m)
β : Inclined angle of headlight beam, in
120
degrees
121 Source: ERA manual 2013
 Source: ERA manual 2013

122
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments
 Horizontal and Vertical Alignments should not be designed independently and
should be considered together
 Correcting alignment deficiencies is extremely difficult and costly!

 Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their
coordination so that the line of the road appears to a driver to flow
smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects. It is
particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver
must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment
well within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with
small radius curves than with large.
 Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual
and do no more than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing
impression of the road. Such defects often occur on sag curves. When these
defects are severe, they may create a psychological obstacle and cause some
drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may
endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A
sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.

123
 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing
This refers to the coordination of HA & VA so that the
line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly,
avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects.
Is particularly important in the design of high-speed
roads on which a driver must be able to anticipate
changes in both HA & VA well with in the SSD and
on curves with small radius.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased.
Defects may:
Be purely visual
Create psychological obstacle and cause some
drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily
Endanger the safety of the user by concealing
hazards on the road ahead (e.g. sharp bend hidden
by a crest curve)
124
Additional
 END OF
THE
CHAPTE
126