PESTICIDE

S AND
ORGANIC
CHEMICAL
S
Chapter 7
Presented by Professor Arias
 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the reader will be able to:

 Compare classes of pesticides.
 Name three commonly used insecticides and one commonly used herbicide.
 Discuss the health effects of exposure to pesticides.
 Name one chemical used in the manufacture of plastics.
 Describe the potential health effects of exposure to household cleaning products.
 Introduction
• 80 percent of Americans fail to consume the daily recommended
number of servings of fruit (1.5 to 2.5 cups for adults), and 90
percent fail to meet the daily recommended number of servings
of vegetables (2 to 3.5 cups for adults). That means we are not
even close to what some studies suggest may be the ideal
number of servings of fruits and vegetables per day: 7 or more.
• One simple thing you can do to be healthier and live longer is to
eat a diet rich in fruits and vegetables.
 Introduction
• However, not all produce are created equal. There is a need to understand
how crops are produced in practice.
• Since the industrial revolution, chemical-based pesticides have been used
extensively in crop production. Farmers use nearly 1 billion pounds of
pesticides every year.
• Pesticides are unique among manufactured chemical products. Unlike other
chemical products that are designed for a certain purpose and may have toxic
properties as an unintended side effect, pesticides are intentionally toxic—
toxic by design.
 What are Pesticides?
• A pesticide is any substance used to kill, repel, or control certain forms
of plant or animal life that are considered to be pests.
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pesticides/index.cfm
• According to the US Geological Survey, about 1 billion pounds of
conventional pesticides are used each year in the United States to
control weeds, insects, and other pests.
https://www.usgs.gov/centers/oki-water/science/pesticides?qt-science
_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

• The use of pesticides has resulted in a range of benefits, including

increased food production and reduction of insect-borne disease, but
also raises questions about possible adverse effects on the
environment, including water quality.
 What are Pesticides?

• People are exposed to low levels of pesticide residues through their diets. Scientists do not yet have
a clear understanding of the health effects of these pesticide residues.
• Children are particularly susceptible to adverse effects from exposure to pesticides, including
neurodevelopmental effects
• Examples of neurodevelopmental disorders in children include attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), autism, learning disabilities, intellectual disability (also known as mental
retardation), conduct disorders, cerebral palsy, and impairments in vision and hearing. Children
can experience difficulties with language and speech, motor skills, behavior, memory, learning,
or other neurological functions. While the symptoms and behaviors of neurodevelopmental
disabilities often change or evolve as a child grows older, some disabilities are permanent.
 Pros and Cons Part I

• Pros/Benefits of Using Pesticides:

• Reduces disease transmission caused by insect vectors. Ex. DDT; stops the spread of malaria.
• Protects large populations from potentially live threatening illness; management of invasive
pests.
• Reduces crop loss by 2/3 (66%):
• Farmers save $3-5 dollars for every $1 they spend on pesticides.
• Lowers cost of crops and protect crops from pests.
• Protects stored grains from bugs, mold, and rodents.
• Tolerances are the maximum amount of the pesticide residue that is allowed to occur on a
food, and that is an amount that the EPA expects with reasonable certainty to cause no harm.
 Pros and Cons Part II
• Cons/Impacts of Pesticides:
• The President’s Cancer Panel of the National Institutes of Health writes that exposure to pesticides has been linked to
brain/central nervous system, breast, colon, lung, ovarian, pancreatic, kidney, testicular, and stomach cancers, as well as
Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and soft tissue sarcoma.
• In children it can cause childhood cancers, neuro-developmental issues.
• Runoff contamination to ground water.
• Decline in bees and pollinators, birds, mammals, aquatic animals and non-targeted plants resulting in decreased
biodiversity.
• Pesticides can harm their intended targets as well as nontargeted living organisms. Pesticides used in agriculture can
contaminate not only our food but also the environment, and they’re widely present in the air, rain, and rivers. Their use
affects not only the consumers who eat the treated crops but also farmworkers, rural residents, wildlife, and pollinators that
are exposed.
 Likelihood of Being Exposed to
Hazardous Chemicals
• Omnipresent in the environment – vital to society but also raise the potential for
harm to all living organisms on earth.
• Some pesticides are naturally occurring substances, but most are synthetic
chemicals.
• In the United States in 2007, almost 450,000 tons of conventional pesticides
(active ingredient) were used, about 80% of this amount in agriculture.
• Although it would seem that the population has had declining levels of
exposure to environmental chemicals, serious concerns remain regarding the
exposure of the population to a wide spectrum of chemicals in the environment.
Advantages of Hazardous Chemicals
• Essential to the functioning of modern society; According
to the National Institute of Environmental Sciences
“Chemicals are the basis of our way of life—and health—
today. There are about 15,000 chemicals made and used
in high volume in the United States.” for manufacturing
clothing, phones, computers, cars, building materials,
rugs, and other furnishings.
Disadvantages of Hazardous Chemicals

• Implicated as human health hazards, some such as PCBs and

dioxins.
• Example: In the etiology of cancer and adverse birth outcomes.
• Exposure through dissemination of chemicals into the
environment.
• Silent Spring, written by Rachel Carson, is credited with
sensitizing the public to these potential hazards.
 Question:
• How to we maximize the nutritional benefit from fruits and
vegetables while minimizing the negative effects of pesticides
on the health of the environment, agricultural workers, and us
the consumer?
• Remember that, even eating conventionally produced fruits and
vegetables is always healthier than not eating any.
 Before pesticides were created:
• Farming practices were very different. The approaches to naturally prevent and
control pest problems, such as:
• Rotating crops, planting cover crops, providing habitat for pest predators,
maintaining diversity on the farm, selecting crops suited for particular growing
conditions and regions, scouting for pests, and labor-intensive weeding fell out
of favor.
• They could plant vast fields of single crops—monoculture—and focus on
exterminating pests through chemical means.
• Many pests will adapt and develop resistance to the pesticides designed to kill
them (pesticide resistance).
 Before pesticides were created:
• As history shows, specific pesticides are approved and millions of pounds
are released into our environment and food supply, before scientists have
thoroughly researched and understood their wide-ranging and long term
effects.
• We cannot assume that the safety tests required today will capture the
full spectrum of negative effects and adequately protect us from those
harmful effects.
When are pesticides
actually used?

• Most people think of

this when they think
about pesticides in
crops.
 The Reality:
• The truth is- Many pesticides, application is often applied to seeds, soil, and
crops before and after the actual growing period.
• For example, on some fruits and vegetables, one-third to one-half of the
residues are from pesticides that were not applied in the fields or orchards
but in storage.
• In another example- many types of fruit- such as oranges and peaches, are
treated with a fungicide to inhibit mold.
• Fungicides are applied after harvest to prevent sprouting.
• Fumigants are applied into the soil prior to planting to sterilize the fields from
subterranean pests.
 Hazardous Waste in the Environment
Discarded materials potentially harmful to human health or the environment.

• Can be found in the form of liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges.

• Definition: Any solid, semi-solid, or liquid waste generated from a
municipal, commercial, or industrial wastewater treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility exclusive of the
treated effluent from a wastewater treatment plant.
• Much of it is stored in landfills or other containment areas.
 Hazardous Waste in the Environment
• If these waste sites are not properly designed or managed, contents can be released into the
surrounding environment, posing a threat to public health.

Sites can include:

• Chemicals, heavy metals, or substances generated as byproducts
during commercial manufacturing processes, discarded household
products like paint thinners, cleaning fluids, and old batteries.
Definitions
 Useful definitions

• Petroleum
• Natural
gas
• Coal
• Bitumens
Types/Classes of Pesticides:
Affect nerve transmission

Lice treatment

DDT (nerve toxin)

Ingredient in agent orange during WW2

Kills all types of plants

 Four Major Classes of Pesticides and Insecticides
Derived from Organic Chemicals

1. Organophosphates (OPs).
2. Organocarbamates (also called carbamates).
3. Organochlorides (also called organochlorines) – banned because of their
ability to persist in the environment.
Examples: Lindane and DDT.
4. Pyrethroids (from the class of Pyrethrins) – low toxicity for mammals,
obtained from naturally occurring sources, useful for controlling insects.
 Organophosphate Pesticides (Anticholinesterases) OPs

• Organophosphates (OPs) are a class of insecticides,

several of which are highly toxic.
• Inexpensive in comparison to alternatives.
• Can be used to control a wide range of insects.
• Eliminates need to use multiple pesticides.
• Have not been weakened by the resistance of insects.
• Tend not to persist in the environment.
 Organophosphate Pesticides (Anticholinesterases) OPs

☛ Organophosphate pesticides are toxic to the neurological system.

☛ 33 million pounds of organophosphate pesticides were used in the U.S. in 2007.
☛ Organophosphate pesticides are prohibited on organic farms.
☛ Children who eat organic fruits and vegetables drastically reduce their exposure to
organophosphate pesticides.
☛ Organophosphate pesticide metabolites are detected in the urine of children who eat
conventional fruits and vegetables.
☛ Children with higher levels of organophosphate pesticide metabolites in their urine were
more likely to be diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a 2010
study.
 Effects of Organophosphate Poisoning
• Enters the body via ingestion, inhalation, or contact with skin.
• Inhibit cholinesterase (enzyme in the nervous system that breaks down
acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that carries signals between nerves
and muscles).
• Acetylcholine builds up in the nerves and these become overactive.
• Victims die because they are unable to breathe.
• Symptoms are more severe in young children who cannot clear
pesticide from the body as well as adults can.
 Examples of Organophosphate Pesticides

• Diazinon, Malathion, Methyl Parathion and Parathion

• Appear in numerous products:
• Sprays, baits, indoor foggers/bombs, flea collars, pet
shampoos, powders, animal dips and granules.
• Malathion has been approved for direct application to food
crops such as fruits (apples and oranges), row crops, and
vegetables (tomatoes).
Effects of Exposure to Organophosphates
• A 2010 study that looked at Mexican-American children living in
agricultural regions of CA found that prenatal and early childhood
exposure to OPs can increase risk of neurological disorders such as
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
• According to the researcher: “This chronic low-level exposure could
functionally decrease the neurological capacity of children.” We all might
be exposed to this chronic low level, which is considered safe in the U.S.
• Governments evaluate health risks of short-term exposure to pesticides
such as OPs, but not risks of chronic low-level exposure.
 Risk to Farmers and Farmworkers

• Are at higher risk because they have more direct exposure

to pesticides, at higher doses, and through various routes.
• Annually the EPA reports 10k-20k pesticide poisonings
among farmworkers. Its probably much higher because so
many are unreported.
• The EPA has identified at least six chronic diseases that
have a well-documented association with agricultural
pesticide exposure: Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma, Prostate
Cancer, Parkinson’s Disease, Lung Cancer, Bronchitis and
Asthma.
 Risk to Farmers and Farmworkers

• OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the Department of

Labor.
• These organizations simply don’t go far enough to protect workers.
• OSHA standards for agriculture that deal with pesticides are limited to
“hazard communication” and informing workers of the importance of
“good hygiene practices” such as hand washing before eating to
minimize exposure to agrochemical residues.
 Pesticide Exposure: Who Is at Risk?
• Agricultural workers
• Pets
• Children
• Livestock
• Sensitive subpopulations (e.g., pregnant women)
• Military
• Community members
 Organocarbates aka Carbamates
• Close relatives of the organophosphate pesticides.
• Dissipate quickly from the environment as a result of breaking down
into other substances.
• Some approved for controlling garden pests (e.g., wasps, hornets,
snails).
• An ingredient in some products applied to furry pets to control ticks
and fleas.
 Examples of Carbamates
• Carbyl (Sevin) – Used to control aphids, fireants, fleas, ticks, spiders, and many other outdoor pests. It
is also used in some orchards to thin out blossoms on fruit trees. GardenTech who owns Sevin, has
eliminated carbaryl from most Sevin formulations. Its classified as likely human carcinogen by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
• Aldicarb – Controls insects, mites, and nematodes on bananas, cotton, citrus plantations, dry beans, grain
sorghum, ornamentals, pecans, peanuts, potatoes, seed alfalfa, soybeans, sugar beets, sugarcane,
sweet potatoes, and tobacco. Chronic low-level exposure to this poison could lead to liver damage.
Aldicarb is one of the most dangerous neurotoxic chemicals found anywhere in the world, so toxic it was
banned in the U.S. and more than 100 other countries and is one of the few pesticides classified as
“extremely hazardous” by the World Health Organization.
• Florida News Link
 Examples of Carbamates
• Fenoxycarb – Insect growth regulator; blocks the ability of an insect to change into
an adult from the juvenile stage (metamorphosis). Toxic to fish but low toxicity to
bees, birds, and humans.
• Propoxur – Used to control cockroaches, flies, mosquitoes, and lawn and turf
insects. Propoxur has been used in malaria control activities and in flea collars for
pets. Propoxur is toxic to fish, as well as other animals that eat fish.
• Metam Sodium – Used as a soil sterilant to kill fungi and nematodes that might
infect crop plants, mainly potatoes. Farmers also use it to sterilize soils before
planting bell peppers and tomatoes, especially where root knot nematodes are an
issue.
 Metam Sodium breaks down to Methyl
Isocyanate (MIS)
• Intermediate chemical used for the manufacture of carbamate
pesticides (such as Carbaryl, Carbofuran, Methomyl and Aldicarb)
• Methyl Isocyanate (MIS) is a chemical used in the manufacture of
polyurethane foam, pesticides and plastics. It usually is handled
and shipped as a liquid, which is easily burned and explosive.
Methyl isocyanate evaporates quickly in the air. It has a strong odor
but it can begin to make people sick before the chemical is
detectable by smell.
 MIC Release in Bhopal, India
• A notorious incident was the accidental release of MIC during a 1984 industrial
accident in Bhopal, India.
• More than 3,800 people were killed.
• Breathing in low levels of it from living near facilities that manufacture, store or use the chemical.
• Government figures now refer to an estimate of 15,000 killed over the years. Toxic material
remains.
• Affected over 600,000 workers; 30 years later, those exposed to the gas gave birth to
physically and mentally disabled children.
• About 30 tons of MIC escaped from the tank into the atmosphere within an hour. Most
Bhopal residents were made aware of the gas leak by exposure to the gas itself.
• The stillbirth rate and the neonatal mortality rate increased by up to 300% and 200%
respectively.
 Organochlorines
• Derived from chlorinated hydrocarbons.
• Chemical compounds that contain chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen
• Build up in the fatty tissues of humans, plants and animals. Most of them are attracted
to fatty tissues and organs and are accumulated significantly in animals such as fish.
This means that animals high up the food chain such as birds of prey and humans can
accumulate higher levels of the pesticides than animals lower down the food chain.
Persist in the environment.
• Bioaccumulate in the food chain.
• Associated with suppression of the immune system and cancer.
Examples of Organochlorine Pesticides
• DDT
• Lindane
• Chlordane
• Mirex
• Hexachlorobenzene
• Methoxychlor
 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

• Beginning of widespread use: Early 1940s widely and commonly

used to protect crops, livestock, buildings and households from the
damaging effects of insects.
• Maximum use was in the 1960s.
• Use in U.S. prohibited in 1972.
• Due to concerns about the possible adverse effects on the
health of humans and wildlife.
 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

• DDT and its related chemicals persist for a long time in the
environment and in animal tissues. Considered a probable human
carcinogen.
• Some animals exposed to DDT in studies developed liver tumors.
• Current status:
• Most developed nations have banned DDT.
• Some countries still use it to control mosquitos and control malaria.
 Human Health Effects of DDT

Linked to:

• Cancer (Pancreatic, Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma and Breast).

• Reproductive Effects.
• Impaired lactation.
• Falling sperm counts.
• Impaired neurologic function (irritability, dizziness, and numbness).
 Pyrethrins
• Derived from natural sources.
• Certain varieties of chrysanthemum flowers.
• Pyrethrins are commonly used to control mosquitoes, fleas, flies,
moths, ants and many other pests.
 Pyrethrins
• Generally have low concentrations of the active ingredient.
• Used inside the home in aerosol cans, insecticide bombs, insecticidal
pet shampoos, treatments for lice applied directly to humans, and
mosquito repellents. Pyrethrins are found in over 2,000 registered
pesticide products.
• May be inhaled as a result of spraying and may be ingested in foods.
• Examples:
• Permethrin, Bifenthrin, Cyflurin, Cypermethrin, and Telfluthrin.
 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

• Studies have linked POPs exposures to declines, diseases, or abnormalities in a number

of wildlife species, including certain kinds of fish, birds, and mammals.
• Wildlife also can act as sentinels for human health- abnormalities or declines detected in
wildlife populations can sound an early warning bell for people.
• Behavioral abnormalities and birth defects in fish, birds, and mammals in and around the
Great Lakes, for example, led scientists to investigate POPs exposures in human
populations.
• People are mainly exposed to POPs through contaminated foods.
• Less common exposure routes include drinking contaminated water and direct
contact with the chemicals.
 Dioxins
• Many people are familiar with some of the most well-known POPs- such as PCBs, DDT,
and Dioxins.
• Break down very slowly and emissions released long ago remain in the environment.
• Some Dioxins endure a long time, are extremely resistant to environmental degradation,
and therefore are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• Dioxin contamination is an increasing problem in some developing countries, particularly
with uncontrolled burning, and dismantling and recycling of electronic products, such as
computers.
• Forest fires and volcanic eruptions emit dioxins into the environment.
 Agent Orange

• Agent Orange is a blend of tactical herbicides the U.S. military sprayed from 1962 to
1971 during Operation Ranch Hand in the Vietnam War to remove trees and dense
tropical foliage that provided enemy cover.
• The two active ingredients in the Agent Orange herbicide combination were equal
amounts of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
(2,4,5-T), which contained traces of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD).
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJaJbq9aRFI&pp=QAA%3D
 Agent Orange
• Used during the Vietnam War
• Operation Ranch Hand (1962–1971)
• Approximately 19 million gallons of defoliants sprayed on 3.6 million acres
in Vietnam and Laos.
• Contained small amount of Dioxins-“A family of chemical compounds that
are unintentional byproducts of certain industrial, non-industrial and natural
processes, usually involving combustion.”
 Health Effects of Agent Orange
• The Institute of Medicine (US) concluded that there was sufficient
evidence that Agent Orange was associated with several forms of
cancer.
• Soft Tissue Sarcoma
• Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
• Hodgkin’s Disease
• Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
 What Human Activities Produce Dioxins?

• Incineration of industrial and municipal wastes.

• Burning of some fuels.
• Bleaching of wood pulp for paper manufacturing process.
• Manufacture and application of some herbicides.
• Tobacco combustion- Minute amounts of dioxin in cigarette smoke.
 Health Effects of Exposure to Dioxin

• Chloracne
• Skin rashes
• Skin discoloration
• Growth of excessive body hair
• Liver damage
• Possible cancer risks
• Endocrine effects
• Reproductive and developmental effects
 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
• PCBs are synthetic organic chemicals- AKA Chlorinated Hydrocarbons.
• PCBs were made in the U.S. from 1929 until the ban in 1979.
• Due to non-flammability, chemical stability, high boiling point and electrical
insulating properties, PCBs were used in 100s of industrial and commercial
applications including: Still present in products made before 1979.
• Electrical, heat transfer and hydraulic equipment.
• Plasticizers in paints, plastics and rubber products.
• Pigments, dyes and carbonless copy paper.
• Other industrial applications.
 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
• Two common uses before their manufacture was terminated:
• Insulating fluid in transformers and capacitors.
• Lubricant, Plastics, Floor finish, Caulking, Cable insulation.
• PCBs present in the environment tend to bioaccumulate in fish and
other animals used for food and, in turn, affect human health.
 Health Effects of PCBs
• Causes cancer in animals.
• Designated as probable human carcinogen.
• May impact the immune system, reproductive system and children’s intellectual development.
• May limit the development of immune responses to the Epstein-Barr virus and other viral and
bacterial infections.
• A variety of other non-cancer effects of PCBs have been reported, including the following:
• Dermal and ocular effects in monkeys and humans.
• Liver toxicity in rodents.
• Elevated blood pressure, serum triglyceride and serum cholesterol in humans.
Chemicals Used in Plastics Manufacture:
Styrene
Uses:
• Manufacture of polystyrene resins, which are components of many
types of plastics.
• Effects of short-term inhalation:
• Central nervous system effects, such as muscle weakness, and
problems concentrating on tasks.
• Irritation of the respiratory tract.
• Possibly carcinogenic.
• https://thekidshouldseethis.com/post/plastics-101-what-is-plastic-and-how-i
s-it-made
Chemicals Used in Plastics Manufacture: Vinyl Chloride

• Uses:
• Mainly for the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, which is an
ingredient in plastic products such as PVC pipes, vinyl siding for
houses, plastic coatings, and upholstery.
• Classified as a human carcinogen.
• Vinyl chloride exposure is associated with an increased risk of a
rare form of liver cancer (Hepatic Angiosarcoma), as well as brain
and lung cancers, lymphoma, and leukemia.
Environmental Estrogens are “Endocrine
Disruptors”
• Some organic chemicals (e.g., chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides) may have
estrogenic activity.
• Environmental estrogen is the technical term for any of a group of synthetic
substances found in the environment that, when absorbed into a person's system,
function in a similar wary to estrogen, the generic term for female sex hormones.
• More than 60 substances, including dioxin, DDT and PCB have been identified as
environmental estrogens.
• Sometimes DDT (and its metabolites) is called an endocrine disruptor, meaning
that it acts as an antagonist to androgen.
 Effects of Environmental Estrogens
• May have abnormal influences on the reproductive systems of exposed
humans and animals.
• Estrogens also have effects on male genital development. As adults,
male mice exposed in utero to DES had a higher-than-average
frequency of undescended testicles, testicular cancer, sperm
abnormalities and prostate disease. Some of these outcomes
were also reported for men exposed in utero to DES.
• May act as cancer promoters by having an influence on the onset of
female cancers that are thought to be caused by estrogenic activity.