Key syllabus terms

ice sheets, glaciers, groundwater

4.1 Global water distribution
• Oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface.
• Oceans and seas contain 97% of all the
Earth’s water.
• Only 3% of water on Earth is freshwater.
• Nearly two thirds (65%) of this 3%
fresh-water is in the ‘deep freeze’ in the ice
sheets.

Sanitation refers to keeping dirty water separate from

drinking water. Water treatment is carried out to turn water
that is not safe to drink into potable water.
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0680/22/M/J/10
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Key Points:
•75% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, but only 3% of this
is fresh. Of this much is locked in ice caps and glaciers, leaving less
than 1% for human use.
•On average, there is more than enough water for everyone, but it
is not distributed evenly or in the same places as humans live.

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/environmental-science/
global-water-resources/content-section-0?active-tab=description-tab
Key syllabus terms
water cycle processes: precipitation, interception, surface runoff, infiltration, through-
flow,
groundwater flow, evaporation, transpiration, condensation
4.2 The Water Cycle
• Precipitation: moisture that reaches the surface in the
form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
o Rain is the most common type.

• Surface run-off: precipitation that flows over the ground

surface, eventually finding its way into streams and
rivers.

• Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the Earth’s

surface due to being obstructed by trees and plants.

• Infiltration: precipitation soaks into sub-surface soils and

moves into rocks through cracks and pore spaces.

• Through-flow: downslope movement of water through

the soil, roughly parallel to the ground surface.
• Ground water flow:
slow horizontal movement of water through rock.

• Evaporation: water from oceans, seas and other

Water bodies is changed from water droplets to water
vapour (invisible gas) in the atmosphere due to heat.

• Transpiration: evaporation or diffusion of water

from
plant leaves.

• Condensation: water vapour converted back into

liquid
(water droplets) or solid (particles of ice) due to a
decrease in temperature with increasing height by air
currents, e.g. clouds.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KM-59ljA4Bs
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 Key Points:

•Most of you will already be familiar with the basics of the water
cycle from KS3 Science and Geography, but it is important to
understand and be able to define all of the key terms on page 91.
Please note, this syllabus uses the terms evaporation and
transpiration (not evapotranspiration, so please do not use this in
your exam).

•It is key to understand that the total amount of water on Earth is

fixed and unchanging. The water cycle is a closed cycle.

https://gpm.nasa.gov/education/water-cycle

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle-kids-
adv.html
Key syllabus terms
aquifer, well, reservoir, desalination plant
4.3 Water supply
• Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps.
• Ground water: water in the soil, and in rocks under the
surface of the ground.
• Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks under the
ground.

o Alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap

the water in permeable rock;

o Folded layers of rock so water accumulates the

most in the down fold;

o Permeable rocks outcropping on the

surface receive new supplies of rainwater;

o Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone

(porous) rocks below the water table;

o Mechanical pumps, or human labour are used to raise

water to the surface.
0680/21/O/N/14
▪ Artesian aquifer: an aquifer in which the water is
under pressure.
▪ Water from a well sunk into an artesian aquifer will rise
to the surface without the need for a pump.
• Potable: safe to drink.

• Reservoirs: an artificial lake used as a source of water

supply, usually created behind a dam or by the side of a
river (bank-side reservoir).

o Service reservoir: a reservoir where potable water

is
stored e.g. Water tower and Cistern.

• Wells: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water

stored in them.

• Rivers: a large, natural stream of water flowing in a

channel to the sea, a lake, or another river.
o They provide surface transfers of water to low-land
areas where farms, villages, towns and cities are
• Desalination: removal of salt from seawater by:
o Distillation: water is boiled and released as vapour,
leaving salt behind.
▪ The vapour is then condensed as liquid water and can beused.
▪ 10-30% efficient and uses a lot of energy.
▪ Provision of energy and salt water (brine) is a source
of pollution.

o Reverse osmosis: pumping water at high pressure

through a fine
membrane.
▪ 30-50% efficient and requires lesser energy
than distillation.
https://www.waterfootprintassessmenttool.org/national-explorer/
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Key Points:
•There are three main demands for water: domestic,
industrial and agricultural. Globally around 8% is for
domestic use, 22% for industrial and 70% for
agriculture.

•Domestic use includes drinking and cooking, washing,

flushing the toilet and watering the garden. Total
amounts and percentages vary greatly between
countries.

•A wide range of industrial processes use water, for

example as a universal solvent and as a coolant.

•Agriculture is by far the largest use globally, mainly for

irrigation but also for livestock
https://www.worldometers.info/water/
Key syllabus terms
Domestic, industrial, agricultural
4.4 Water usage

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZ7bg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=0_ZcCqqpS2o

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=8K6V450StO4
Key Points:

•Fresh water for human use can be extracted from rivers and lakes, groundwater
stores such as aquifers, or by treating salt water to make it potable.

•Water can be taken directly from rivers, but more commonly is stored in a
reservoir. If the reservoir stores water after treatment to make it potable, this is
called a service reservoir.

•Groundwater is stored in porous rocks (aquifers), which hold about 30% of global
fresh water supplies. Aquifers can be accessed through wells.

•Salt water can be made potable through desalinisation. This can be done through
distillation or reverse osmosis. Both processes uses a lot of energy and create by-
products to be disposed of.
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/saline-water-use-
united-states?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/artesian-
water-and-artesian-wells?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-
science_center_objects
Key syllabus terms
safe drinking water, water conflict
4.5 Water quality and availability
• Water-rich countries: countries with plentiful fresh
water supplies:

o Some are large countries with plenty of land for rain to

fall on e.g. Russia, Canada, China, and some with the
world’s greatest rivers flowing through them e.g.
Amazon, Yangtze, Mississippi.

o However, big areas do not ensure water availability e.g.

Australia, Argentina, Sudan, due to containing
substantial areas of desert within its borders.

• Water-poor countries: countries with scarce fresh

water
supplies:
o Dominated by desert countries.
o Except Singapore and Mauritius since they receive high
precipitation totals, but are tiny island states that have
• Water conflict: conflict between countries,
states, or
groups over an access to water resources.
• Physical water scarcity: not enough water to
meet both
human demands and those of ecosystems to function
effectively.
o Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water
scarcity.
o It also occurs where water seems abundant, but
resources are over-committed.
• Economic water scarcity: caused by a lack of
investment
in water infrastructure or insufficient human capacity to
satisfy the demand of water in areas where the
population cannot afford to use an adequate source of
water.
• Unlike Rural areas, Urban areas have
higher access to
safe drinking water because:
o Cities are more wealthy places with factories and
offices;

o On average, people’s incomes are higher;

o Easier to put pressure on the politicians or leaders to

make improvements;

o Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities;

o Water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot

of people live close together.
Welcome to
WaterAid
When we need water in the UK, we just turn on a tap and there it is!

Try and keep count of how many times you turn on a tap today. Are you surprised at
how many times you do so?
But in some of the countries where WaterAid works, there is no water nearby. This photo was
taken in Mozambique and shows Catarina (right) with her granddaughters Lucrecia (11,
centre) and Ruth (9, left) on their way back from collecting dirty water from a river. Millions of
children around the world have to do this every day.

If you lived in a country like Mozambique like Lucrecia and Ruth, it might take you at least two hours a day
to collect water.

What else do you think they might be able to do in two hours? Perhaps playing with friends or doing
Carrying the heavy water containers on their heads can damage children’s necks and
spines and affect them for the rest of their lives.

How do you think it would feel to carry a bucket of water on your head?

Now would be a good time to show our film – Water Walk

Even when there is water to collect, it is often very dirty. Often, it comes from a pond or river.

This is Azmera, who is 13 and lives in Ethiopia. She’s on her way to collect water for her family. Can you
imagine drinking this water? How do you think it would effect you?

Every single day almost 900 children die of diseases caused by drinking water like this
(compare this figure to the population of your school).
Dirty water isn’t the only problem. This is Ras ZeSilas School in Ethiopia, Africa. Until
recently, these were the only toilets that the school had. The block on the left is for
female students and the one on the right is for teachers.

But these toilets served over 1,300 female students and 71 teachers. Do you think there
enough toilets for the staff and the pupils? Do you think these toilets would be clean and
safe to use?
WaterAid is a charity that works to transform these people’s lives. They raise funds to build wells and
install taps in poor communities in Africa and Asia.
The people are then able to start businesses, go to school and improve their health. It’s life changing
work!

14 year old Tekalign is an eighth grade student at Ras ZeSilas Primary School, Ethiopia, where
previously 2,500 pupils shared one tap. WaterAid has built 14 new taps to bring clean, safe water to
the school and Tekalign wanted to share a few words with us -
“We have had no water to wash with when we leave the toilet, and that exposed us to eye infections
and stomach diseases such as diarrhoea. Now all of that is going to be over. Now there are going to be
WaterAid doesn’t just build wells and taps. They also help people to build toilets!

A new water supply can easily become polluted and unsafe if the community does not have somewhere clean and
private to go to the loo. Imagine if your school had no toilets – would you want to come to school? Would your
teachers?

Poor sanitation leads to bad health. Bacteria, viruses and parasites found in human waste kill millions of people
every year.

This is Chooka, outside a brand new toilet block we built at her school in Zambia.
WaterAid also teaches people about good hygiene. Simple things like washing your hands after going to the loo or
before eating can make a big difference. In fact washing your hands with soap and water reduce the chances of
getting diarrhoea by nearly half!

The communities WaterAid work with help each other learn about good hygiene in lots of different ways. WaterAid
trains people to become hygiene educators who visit people in their homes, arrange meetings or put on plays to
spread hygiene messages.

WaterAid also works in schools to teach children these messages. Children often listen and learn better than adults.
They will also take what they have learnt home with them and teach their family and neighbours about the
importance of good hygiene. The girls pictured are from India, and are using brand new taps to wash their hands.
WaterAid has teams in 35 countries worldwide.
Is it surprising that people feel so happy when WaterAid works in their community?

It does not cost a great deal to make a big difference. Just £15 can help provide one person with access to safe water.
But having safe water doesn’t just mean that they can stay healthy. It also gives means that children have time to go to
school and parents have time to earn a living. Having water also means that communities can grow food to eat and to
sell, giving them an income and making them healthier.

Why not show our ‘World of water’ film, which gives an overview of WaterAid’s work:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzRdJc-vPjM&index=1&list=PLc-oawSTlDS1PfrZZVSRDs4s1nPcVeaEM
Key Points:
•The most important factor affecting water availability is the amount of precipitation,
but other factors such as water quality, population density and economic development
are also important. Physical water scarcity means there is not enough water to meet
people’s needs. Economic water scarcity means water is available but there is not
enough money to extract, treat and transport it to people.

•Clean water availability relies on working sanitation systems as well as water

treatment systems. In some less economically developed countries, less than a
quarter of people have access to clean water. Clean water access tends to be better in
urban areas than rural areas.

•Lack of water can lead to conflict and even war. This issue is likely to become worse
as global population and water demand rise but availability remains constant.
https://www.peacecorps.gov/stories/8-projects-bringing-safe-sustainable-water-
sources-communities-around-world/
Key syllabus terms
multi-purpose dam, environmental, economic, social, sustainability
4.6 Multipurpose dam projects
• Example: the Ramganga Dam, Uttarakhand,
India.

• Choice of site:
o High precipitation to provide sufficient water;
o Low temperature to prevent evaporation;
o Built on strong impermeable rock so water doesn’t
drain and has a good foundation;
o Built high up in order to have good potential for
hydro-electric power;
o Narrow, steep sided valley for economic reasons;
o Rivers and lakes nearby to provide water;
o Away from developed areas to reduce the risk of
pollution in reservoirs;
o Easily accessible;
 o Maximizes water storage capacity.

• Sustainability of dams:
o Alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no greenhouse
gases are produced.
• Unsustainability of dams:
o Reservoir can become silted due to material carried
into it by rivers;
o Dam structure under a lot of pressure can deteriorate
and eventually fail;
o Have negative effects on the environment and fish
population.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8cCsUBYSkw
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Key Points:

•Dam projects can have huge benefits (water supply, flood reduction, tourism, energy
production etc.) but often also have numerous costs (flooding and relocation, habitat loss,
changes to downstream water supply).
•Dam location depends on many factors. Requirements include a narrow river valley, high in
the valley for hydro-electric power, and low population density.

•Advantages and disadvantages need to be weighed carefully to decide if dam construction is

sustainable (remember: social, environmental and economic effects). Factors include longer
term and larger scale issues such as risk of silting and reduction in need for fossil fuels.

•The Ramganga River Dam, at Kalagarh, India, was completed in 1974. The area was chosen
because no farmland needed to be flooded or people relocated; forestry and plantation owners
were compensated. Since completion, flooding can be controlled, wildlife has increased, and
over 3,000 workers are employed. However, farmers say water supply can either be as floods
or drought, sediment supply has been affected and fish numbers have decreased.

https://blog.arcadia.com/pros-cons-dams/
https://sandrp.in/2014/11/11/ramganga-project-a-performance-review/
https://ibgeoturtle.wordpress.com/2018/01/16/case-study-three-gorges-
dam/
Key syllabus terms
sewage, industrial processes
4.7 Water pollution and its sources
• Sewage: waste matter that is rich in organic matter, thus microbial organisms can thrive
in it.
o It is usually disposed in water bodies, and thus has to be treated.

• Domestic waste: sewage from rural and urban settlements carry many pathogenic
micro-organisms, increasing the content of nitrates and phosphates in rivers.
o Detergents, metals and other manufactured products contain traces of toxic chemicals.

• Industrial processes: use of chemicals, the processing of metal ores, and the
leaching of metals from waste heaps and dumps cause the presence of metals in rivers (e.g.
manganese, mercury, copper).
o Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water and form
acid rain.

• Agricultural practices: surpluses of phosphorous and nitrogen not absorbed by the

plants are washed from the land or percolate into the ground water.
o On farms, animal manure, synthetic fertiliser, and chemical pesticides are main sources.
Key syllabus terms
infectious diseases, typhoid, cholera,
bioaccumulation, acid rain, eutrophication
4.8 Impact of water pollution
• Global inequalities in sewage and water
treatment:
developing countries have difficulty treating water and
sewage compared to developed countries as people
aren’t educated and can’t put pressure on the
government.
• Risk of infectious bacterial diseases, typhoid and
cholera: water-borne diseases are caused by drinking
• Accumulation
contaminated water. of toxic substances from industrial
processes in lakes and rivers: reduces oxygen in lakes and rivers, causing
reduction in photosynthesis and death of fish and insect larvae.
• Biomagnification of toxic substances in food chains:
increases concentration of a toxic substance (e.g. mercury and pesticides) in the tissues of
organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain, causing illness.
o Bioaccumulation: accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular
organism.
• Formation of
acid rain:
burning fossil fuels such as
coal and oil produce sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) that are blown
long distances and react with
water in the atmosphere.
o SO2 dissolves in water to
form sulfuric acid, and NOx
dissolves to form nitric acid that fall in the form of rain.

o pH: measured by acidity or alkalinity.

▪ Ranges from very acidic, 1, to very alkaline, 14.

▪ 7 is neutral.
• The effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes:
o Lower pH makes the environment intolerable for
aquatic life;

o Fish egg-laying is reduced, and young fish are

malformed;

o Leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and

mercury from the soil into the water;

o Aluminum clogs fish gills and causes suffocation;

o Minerals essential for life, notably calcium and

potassium, are washed out of the lake or river,
reducing algae growth and leaving less food for fish
and other animals.
• Nutrient enrichment leading to
eutrophication:
o Increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates,
in a water body causes algae bloom (rapid growth of algae).

o Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter

that acts as food for bacteria as they decompose the dead algae.

o Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing oxygen content in the

water and causing the death of organisms.
Key syllabus terms
improved sanitation, sewage treatment, pollution
control
4.9 Managing pollution of fresh water
• Improve sanitation: separates human excreta from
contact with humans, achieved by toilets and latrines.
Waste can be removed by:
o Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage,
that collects human faeces, urine and waste water.
o Connection to a septic system, which consists of an
underground, sealed settling tank.
o Flush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and
a water seal that prevents smells.
o Pour toilet: has a water seal but uses water poured by
hand for flushing.
o Pit latrine: type of toilet that collects human faeces in
a hole in the ground that is sometimes ventilated to
take away smells.
o Composting toilet: dry toilet in which vegetable waste,
straw, grass, sawdust, and ash are added to the human
waste to produce compost.
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• Treatment of sewage: aims to reduce the
Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the sewage.
o Sewage outfall: waste water from homes and
industries is taken to a sewage treatment plant in
sewers.
o Screening tank: large objects are removed from
the
waste using a coarse grid.
o Primary treatment, first settling tank:
solid organic
matter, mainly human waste, settles at the bottom of
the tank (sludge), which is treated in a sludge-digester.
▪ Clean water then overflows the sides of the tank and
is taken to the next stage.
o Secondary treatment, oxidation: water is pumped into
a tank where oxygen is bubbled through it.
▪ This encourages the growth of bacteria and other
microbes that break down organic matter, which
cause BOD.
o Secondary treatment, second settling tank: water
enters, where bacteria settle to the bottom, forming
more sludge.
▪ This cleaner water overflows the sides of the tank as
effluent, usually discharged into a river.
o Sludge digester: oxygen-free conditions are created
that encourage the growth of bacteria which can break
down the sludge, releasing methane, that can be burnt.
▪ Treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and
used as organic fertiliser on farmland.
o Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent
or its chlorination which produces even cleaner
effluent that protects the habitat in which it is released.
• Water treatment: Water is made potable by undergoing coagulation
treatment, being filtered and disinfected.
o Coagulation:
Particles in the water are stuck together and settle to the bottom of the
container.
o Water is then filtered through sand.
o Chlorination: to kill remaining pathogens, chlorine is added as a
disinfectant.
• Pollution control and legislation: puts pressure on polluters to
find ways to reduce pollutants.
o Industries are required to monitor the pollution they cause and keep it within
set level.
o Bi-national Great lakes water quality agreement
(GLWQA): a loading limit of phosphorus was set at 11000 metric tonnes year-
1 in response to eutrophication issues in the Great Lakes of USA and Canada.
o Fines for exceeding set limits.
o Companies may be prosecuted and in extreme cases, forced to shut down.
o Companies may need government agreement on strategic plans to reduce
pollution levels.
o Incentives may be used to encourage companies to take part, such as grants or
tax relief, for those that do achieve a reduction in pollution.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ms4v0Ekvyuw ACID
RAIN
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRaptzcp9G4
WASTE WATER TREATMENT
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YW6GBciRHLg

WHERE DOES YOUR SEWAGE GO?

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0680/22/M/J/10
Key Points:
•There are three main sources of water pollution: domestic, industrial and
agricultural.

•The main domestic waste is sewage. Sewage is rich in organic matter allowing
microbes, including bacteria, to thrive. It also uses up oxygen during decomposition
and therefore contributes to eutrophication (refer to Module 3.5). Sewage treatment
involves reducing the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the sewage through
screening, settling, oxidation and sludge digestion. Improved sanitation separates
human excreta from contact with humans through the use of flushing toilets, pit
latrines or compost toilets. Water treatment aims to make water potable (drinkable)
through coagulation, filtering and disinfecting (chlorination).

•Industrial processes often lead to chemicals entering the water system, either
directly through outfalls into rivers and lakes, or via air pollution and then acid rain.
Some chemicals are immediately toxic, others can cause increased harm over time
through biomagnification, including heavy metals (e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium) and
pesticides. Acid rain occurs when SO2 and NOx gases from fossil fuel power stations
combine with water to form sulfuric and nitric acid. Acid rain damages plants (tree
dieback), building materials (particularly limestone), and aquatic ecosystems (lower
pH, malformed fish, leaching of heavy metals etc.) Acid rain can be reduced by
reducing SO and NO emissions through use of low sulfur fuels, sulfur scrubbers, and
•Agricultural pollutants are pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers.
Nutrients from fertilisers (as well as industrial and domestic sources),
such as nitrates and phosphates, can cause eutrophication, leading to
algal blooms. The increased organic matter leads to an increased BOD,
leading to fish and insect deaths.

•Water pollution can be tackled by government legislation which puts

pressure on polluters to reduce their emissions, through methods such
as fines for exceeding set limits, as well as incentives such as grants and
tax relief.

•Following the magnitude 7.0 earthquake in Haiti in January 2010, an

already poor sanitation system was devastated, leading to the first
cholera outbreak in over 100 years and over 9,000 deaths. The outbreak
was controlled through the installation of latrines, thorough cooking of
food and education about hand washing.
Key syllabus terms
vector control, chlorination
4.10 Managing water-related disease
• Water-borne disease: spread by consuming
contaminated water due to poor sanitation and
untreated sewage, or by washing food, pots and
pans, or hands and face in dirty water.

o Examples: cholera and typhoid.

• Cholera: intestinal infection that causes severe
Diarrhea that may lead to dehydration and
eventually death.
o Causes: poor sanitation, contamination of water
And food, disruption of piped water supplies after
a natural disaster occurrence.
• Water-bred disease: the carrier breeds in water
and spreads the disease by biting its victims.
o Example: malaria.

• Malaria: a life-threatening disease which is

transmitted
through the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito
(vector) that carries the Plasmodium parasite. Once
bitten, the parasite reaches your bloodstream.
o Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhea,
dehydration and feeling weak.
• Life cycle of the malaria parasite:
• Strategies to control malaria:
o Sleeping under mosquito nets and using antimalarial drugs in and around homes;
o Draining marshes and stagnant pools to eliminate breeding grounds;
o Put kerosene over the tops of pools to choke the larvae;
o Spray antimalarial drugs on stagnant areas of water to kill the larvae;
o Use vaccinations;
o Educate people on the risks of malaria by setting up campaigns and programmes.

• Strategies to control cholera:

o Ensure that sewage and drinking water are kept separate;
o Sewage removed directly into a treatment works;
o Water being treated before it’s delivered into homes;
o Do not use contaminated water to wash food;
o Hands should be washed after contact with any faecal material;
o Boiling water and chlorination.
TASK:

Are malaria and / or cholera present in your

home country or world region?
If yes—your investigation might include:
A Location and distribution, areas most
badly affected, areas little affected
B Strategies used to try to control it
C Effectiveness of these—reasons for their
success or failure
If no—why are they not a problem in your
home country or world region?
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0680/22/M/J/10
0680/12/M/J/20
Key Points:
•Nutrient-rich water is the perfect environment for bacteria to grow in. Some bacteria are
pathogens that allow water-borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid to spread. Disease can
be prevented by keeping sewage away from drinking water through good sanitation (sewage
treatment and water treatment) and good hygiene practices.

•Malaria is caused by microscopic Plasmodium organisms and spread by mosquitoes.

Mosquitoes breed in water containing Plasmodium then act as vectors to transmit it to
humans. Malaria affects countries containing half the world’s population and causes over
400,000 deaths a year, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa.

•Malaria is best prevented by avoiding mosquito bites. Individuals can stay inside between
dusk and dawn, cover their bodies with clothing and insect repellent, and sleep under a
mosquito net coated in insecticide. Governments can control the mosquito vector by spraying
insecticide over larger areas, draining wetlands, introducing fish that eat mosquito larvae, and
pouring oil on water surfaces.

•The World Health Organization (WHO) encourages global eradication of malaria. Treatment
improvements have reduced the incidence of malaria and the death rate; however the
mosquito is evolving resistance.