1

CHAPTER FOUR
Water and its Environment
Global water distribution
L.O: describe the distribution of the Earth’s water
Resides in glaciers, 30%
underground, and less than
1% is located in lakes,
rivers, and swamps.
Looked at another way,
only one percent of the
water on the Earth’s
surface is usable by
humans, and 99% of the
usable quantity is situated
The distribution of water on the Earth’s surface is extremely underground.
uneven. Only 3% of water on the surface is fresh; the
remaining 97% resides in the ocean. Of freshwater, 69%
SELF ASSESSMENT
1 (a) Look at the graph, which shows population and water availability by continent as
percentages of the world totals.
 2

The water cycle

L.O: describe and interpret the water cycle
The water cycle, also referred to as the hydrological cycle, is basically the movement of water on
the planet. It involves movement of water...
1. On the surface of the Earth (surface flow)
2. Above the surface of the Earth (evaporation and precipitation)
3. Beneath the surface of the Earth (ground water flow)
The amount of water on the planet is basically stable, but it is in continuous cyclic movement
and hence, is referred to as the water cycle

Evaporation: the process in which liquid water turns into vapour, the opposite of condensation.
Condensation: the process in which water vapour turns into liquid water, the opposite of
evaporation.
Precipitation: the process in which liquid water (as rain) or ice particles (as snow or hail) fall to
earth due to gravity
 3

Transpiration: the movement of water up plants and its subsequent loss as water vapour from
their leaves
Surface run-off: the process by which water runs over the ground into rivers
Interception: the process by which precipitation is stopped from reaching the ground surface by
the presence of trees and other plants.
Infiltration: the process by which water seeps into ground.
Groundwater flow: the process by which infiltrated water flow through rocks
Through flow: the process by which infiltrated water flows through the soil.
SELF ASSESSMENT
(b) Humans also affect processes within the water cycle.
4
 5

Answer 2013 November 22 with scholars

WATER SUPPLY
L.O: describe the sources of fresh water used by people

Aquifers:
An aquifer is an
underground layer of
water-bearing permeable
rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials.
Groundwater can be
extracted using a water
well. The study of water
flow in aquifers and the
characterization of aquifers
is called hydrogeology.
 6

Wells:
A hole bored or dug into rock to reach the
water stored there. Wells can be either near
the surface or they can draw up water from
very deep. They need to be tested for purity.
But some wells offer pure, drinkable water.

Surface Water:
Lakes, rivers, ponds and streams are
supplied by rainfall and ice melt. Mostly
fresh water, depending on runoff, lakes can
be clear or murky and generally contain
organic elements from bacteria to alligators.

Reservoirs: an artificial lake were water can be stored

Glaciers:

Glaciers are a composite of different snow falls which accumulate over the millennia.
 7

Desalination plants:
It is not possible to drink seawater as it contains salt. Desalination plants remove the salt from
seawater to make it safe to drink. Desalination plants could solve many of the world's water
insecurity issues, but the process is expensive and therefore not viable in some developing
countries. The UK has opened its first desalination facilities on the river Thames. The plant
removes the salt from tidal water from the river Thames to help the UK during times of
prolonged low rainfall and drought.
Desalination process
http://carlsbaddesal.sdcwa.org/desal-process/
 8

SELF ASSESSMENT

Water usage
L.O: describe the different ways in which fresh water can be used
Domestic usage: Domestic water use is water used for indoor and outdoor household purposes
all the things you do at home: drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes,
brushing your teeth, watering the yard and garden, and even washing the dog.
Industrial usage: Manufacturing and other industries use water during the production process
for either creating their products or cooling equipment used in creating their products. According
to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), industrial water is used for fabricating,
processing, washing, diluting, cooling, or transporting a product. Water is also used by smelting
facilities, petroleum refineries, and industries producing chemical products, food, and paper
products. Large amounts of water are used mostly to produce food, paper, and chemicals
Agricultural usage: Agricultural water is water that is used to grow fresh produce and sustain
livestock. The use of agricultural water makes it possible to grow fruits and vegetables and raise
livestock, which is a main part of our diet. Agricultural water is used for
irrigation, pesticide and fertilizer applications.
 9

Compare the percentage of water usage between different regions

Assessment
 10

Water quality and availability

L.O: compare the availability of safe drinking water (potable water) in different parts of
the world
Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food
preparation. The amount of drinking water required varies. It depends on physical activity, age,
health issues, and environmental conditions. Americans, on average, drink one litre of water a
day and 95% drink less than three litres per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16
litres a day may be required. Water is essential for life.
Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, even though
only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical uses
include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Its use for irrigation however may be associated with
risks. Water may also be unacceptable due to levels of toxins or suspended solids.
Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from a source that is suitable for drinking -
called improved water source. In Sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water ranged from 40%
to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people worldwide had access to tap water, while
another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps. The World Health Organization considers
access to safe drinking-water a basic human right.
 11

About 1 to 2 billion people lack safe drinking water, a problem that causes 30,000 deaths each
week. More people die from unsafe water than from war, U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon
said in 2010.
Economic water scarcity:

a situation in which there

is enough water available

but the money does not

exist to extract or treat

enough of it for human

needs.

Physical water scarcity: a situation in which there is simply

not enough water for human needs

Multipurpose Dam projects

L.O: describe and evaluate multipurpose dam projects
Structure of a dam

Watch video for explanation

 12

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SITING/LOCATION OF A DAM

Topography: Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.

1. A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.
2. A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.
3. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam

Geological and Foundation Conditions: Geological and Foundation conditions should be

thoroughly surveyed because the foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind
of foundations generally encountered are

1. Solid rock foundations such as granite have strong bearing power and almost every kind of
dam can be built on such foundations.
2. Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.
3. Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low gravity dams.
4. Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam. Constructions of
gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations. Earthen dams after
special treatments can be built.

Availability of Materials: Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the

type of dam. In order to achieve economy in dam construction, the materials required must be
available locally or at short distances from the construction site.

Spillway Size and Location: Spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the
spillway will depend on the magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore
much more important on rivers and streams with large flood potential.
Earthquake Zone: If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake
forces. The type of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen
dams and concrete gravity dams.
Height of Dam: Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. For
greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred
Impact of dam construction

The Advantages of Dams - Pros

Hydro Electric Power: It's pretty hard to ignore the main benefit that larger dams provide; a
way to produce essentially 'green' (clean) electricity. This is usually the main draw for the
building of dams in the first place and the influx of power for a town to use and sell can cause
cities to grow and thrive.

Tourism and Camping: Dams are a great draw for tourists and provide an attractive place for
families to go camping and fishing etc. This can improve the local economy of an area by
 13

attracting travellers who will often spend money at the nearby businesses, and will hence provide
more jobs for locas as more labour is needed to keep the tourists 'happy' -- with Hotels etc.

Still Water for Animals: Some species of animal actually require still water in order to survive.
As such, a dam can provide a way for these species to thrive in an area where they otherwise
might not have. However, you will see later in this article that dams also cause problems for
other such species.

Clean Drinking Water for Nearby Cities and Towns: Dams can provide a very good source of
water for towns and cities in the area. This water can be used for drinking or industry and can
take advantage of an otherwise unusable water source.

Flooding and Water Management: They can also be specifically designed to help ease and
solve flooding problems within a settled area, and through the dam -- the water can be controlled
to provide a form of irrigation for agricultural land and even source of transportation for goods.

The Disadvantages of Dams - Cons

Expensive and Difficulties in Becoming Profitable: The larger dams are incredibly expensive
to build and, as such, they can take many years to pay for themselves and become profitable.
Most dams are estimated to operate for at least two to three decades, if not more, to become
profitable and this is a cost that is usually taken on by the government and the taxpayers. This
debt can be a large burden on the government for a long time and can influence fiscal policies for
the life of the debt -- not to mention the potential unforeseen maintenance costs

Disruption to Natural Environment and Water Ecology during Construction: Building a

dam requires diverting water temporarily and it also means a lot of digging and construction on
the dam site. While this construction is only temporary, it can have long lasting effects on the
environment -- and potentially harm or worse still destroy local ecosystems.

Geological Disruption and Earthquakes: The Hoover dam is the perfect example of the
geological disruption that can be caused by larger dams. The weight of the Hoover dam has
actually resulted in the compression of the earth in that area. This has had follow on effects such
as minor earthquakes and tremors in the area around the dam. This effect could potentially
become more serious over time.

Danger of Dam Breaches: Dams being built today are much more stable than dams built in the
past but many older dams have problems with breaches or even collapses. Because of the large
volumes of water behind these dams this can cause catastrophes for nearby people and wildlife.

Disruption of Fish Ecology: Most dams can cause complete death of migratory fish in the area
since they are no longer able to head up stream to breed or feed. Some dam designs allow for this
migration to continue somewhat normally but these are usually more expensive and complex to
build. The disruption to the salmon breeding cycles in areas with many dams is the largest
known impact of this though many other species are negatively impacted as well.
 14

Impacted by Drought: In times of heavy drought dams will stop functioning properly and some
can even lose their structural integrity. If local cities rely on the dam for their power then
droughts can be devastating with both power and water becoming scarce. This means that most
dam-powered towns and cities must have access to an alternative power source, which can
potentially negate the positive effects of the dam in the first place.

Effects on Water Quality and Flow: Low oxygen levels in dam water are the result of the
hydroelectric production process. The disruption of the natural flow of water can have impacts
on the turbidity of water as well, which can seriously harm aquatic life.

NOTE: Turbidity is caused by particles suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light
making the water appear cloudy or murky. Particulate matter can include sediment especially
clay and silt, fine organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae, and
other microscopic organisms.

Dam Sustainability

SELF-ASSESSMENT
(d) Look at the photograph, which shows a valley where a dam and reservoir are planned. Dams
and reservoirs store water for human use.
15
16
17
18
19
20
 21

WATER POLLUTION AND ITS SOURCES

L.O: describe the sources of water pollution
Water pollution can come from a number of different sources. If the pollution comes from a
single source, such as an oil spill, it is called point-source pollution. If the pollution comes from
many sources, it is called nonpoint-source pollution. The sources include:

Domestic waste, including sewage from urban and rural settlements

 Sewage is the term used for wastewater that often contains faeces, urine and laundry
waste.
 There are billions of people on Earth, so treating sewage is a big priority.
 Sewage disposal is a major problem in developing countries as many people in these
areas don’t have access to sanitary conditions and clean water.
 Untreated sewage water in such areas can contaminate the environment and cause
diseases such as diarrhoea.
 Sewage in developed countries is carried away from the home quickly and hygienically
through sewage pipes.
 Sewage is treated in water treatment plants and the waste is often disposed into the sea.
 Sewage is mainly biodegradable and most of it is broken down in the environment.
 In developed countries, sewage often causes problems when people flush chemical and
pharmaceutical substances down the toilet. When people are ill, sewage often carries
harmful viruses and bacteria into the environment causing health problems.

Industrial and agricultural practices

Industrial and agricultural work involves the use of many different chemicals that can run-off
into water and pollute it.

 Metals and solvents from industrial work can pollute rivers and lakes. These are
poisonous to many forms of aquatic life and may slow their development, make them
infertile or even result in death.
 Pesticides are used in farming to control weeds, insects and fungi. Run-offs of these
pesticides can cause water pollution and poison aquatic life. Subsequently, birds, humans
and other animals may be poisoned if they eat infected fish.
 22

 Petroleum is another form of chemical pollutant that usually contaminates water through
oil spills when a ship ruptures. Oil spills usually have only a localised effect on wildlife
but can spread for miles. The oil can cause the death of many fish and stick to the
feathers of seabirds causing them to lose the ability to fly.
 Nitrates & Phosphates– These are found in fertilizers, and are often washed from the
soils to nearby water bodies. They can cause eutrophication, which can be very
problematic to marine environments.
 Atmosphere: atmospheric deposition is the pollution of water bodies caused by air
pollution. Each time air is polluted with sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, they mix
with water particles in the air and form a toxic substance. This falls as acid rain to the
ground and gets washed into water bodies. The result is that water bodies also get
contaminated and this affects animals and water organisms.

Causes of acid rain

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise very high into the
atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more
acidic pollutants, known as acid rain.
 23

Impact of water pollution

L.O: describe and explain the impact of pollution of fresh water on people and on the
environment

The effects of water pollution are varied and depend on what chemicals are dumped and in which
locations.
Many water bodies near urban areas (cities and towns) are highly polluted. This is the result of
both garbage dumped by individuals and dangerous chemicals legally or illegally dumped by
manufacturing industries, health centers, schools and market places.

The following are impact of pollution:

Death of aquatic (water) animals: the main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills
organisms that depend on these water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and
many other animals often wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living
environment).

Disruption of food-chains: Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as
lead and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and
shellfish, and the food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.

Diseases: Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can get diseases such
as hepatitis by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In many poor nations, there is always
outbreak of cholera and diseases as a result of poor drinking water treatment from contaminated
waters.

Destruction of ecosystems: Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on

each other for life) can be severely changed or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now
being affected by careless human pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt humans in
many ways.
 24

Managing pollution of fresh water

L.O: describe and explain strategies for improving water quality
Improved sanitation: Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for
the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease
world-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health
both in households and across communities. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance
of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
Treatment of sewage: Wastewater (liquid waste) from flushing the toilet, bathing, washing
sinks and general cleaning goes down the drain and into a pipe, which joins a larger sewer pipe
under the road. The larger pipe also joins a major pipe that leads to the treatment center.

STAGE ONE: SCREENING

Screening is the first stage of the wastewater treatment process. Screening removes large objects
like, diapers, nappies, sanitary items, cotton buds, face wipes and even broken bottles, bottle
tops, plastics and rags that may block or damage equipment.
Special equipment is also used to remove grit that gets washed into the sewer.
STAGE TWO: PRIMARY TREATMENT
this involves the separation of organic solid matter (or human waste) from the wastewater. This
is done by putting the wastewater into large settlement tanks for the solids to sink to the bottom
of the tank. The settled solids are called ‘sludge’. At the bottom of these circular tanks, large
scrappers continuously scrape the floor of the tank and push the sludge towards the center where
it is pumped away for further treatment. The rest of the water is then moved to the Secondary
treatment.
STAGE THREE: SECONDARY TREATMENT
The water, at this stage, is put into large rectangular tanks. These are called aeration lanes. Air is
pumped into the water to encourage bacteria to break down the tiny bits of sludge that escaped
the sludge scrapping process.
STAGE FOUR: FINAL TREATMENT
Next, the ‘almost’ treated wastewater is passed through a settlement tank. Here, more sludge is
formed at the bottom of the tank from the settling of the bacterial action. Again, the sludge is
scraped and collected for treatment. The water at this stage is almost free from harmful
 25

substances and chemicals. The water is allowed to flow over a wall where it is filtered through a
bed of sand to remove any additional particles.
Educating citizens on the effects of water pollution and proper sanitation.
Pollution control and legislation: Many governments have very strict laws that help minimize
water pollution. These laws are usually directed at industries, hospitals, schools and market areas
on how to dispose, treat and manage sewage. Do you know the laws in your country? This is the
time to find out. Local authorities must be vigilant and quick and to deal with water issues of
their community to prevent danger.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
26
27
28
 29

Managing water-related disease

L.O: describe the life cycle of the malaria parasite
WHAT IS A MALARIAL PARASITE ?

The malarial parasite, Plasmodium, is a very small, single-cell blood organism, or

'protozoan'.

It lives as a parasite in other organisms, namely man monkeys and mosquitoes. The parasite
is the cause of the tropical disease malaria.

The Plasmodium parasite is dependent on a single species of mosquito, Anopheles, which is

the only species capable of serving as host for it.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE PARASITE'S LIFE CYCLE ?

This small single-cell organism has three to four different forms. Each form is specialized in
living in a certain place.

 The gametocyte is the form that infects the mosquito and reproduces itself, as if it
were both sexes. When the mosquito has sucked blood containing gametocytes, these
pass into the salivary glands of the mosquito, where they develop into a new form, the
sporozoite. The infection can then move on.
 The sporozoite can be passed on to man when the mosquito bites, injecting its saliva
into the tiny blood vessels. The sporozoite travels with the blood to the liver and
enters the liver cells. In the liver some of the sporozoites divide (tachysporozoites)
and become thousands of merozoites.
 The merozoites are released from the liver to the blood where they are taken up by
the red blood corpuscles. Some of these turn into ring-formed trophozoites that split
again to form schizonts.
 Schizonts burst the red blood corpuscles at a certain moment, releasing the
merozoites. This release coincides with the violent rises in temperature during the
attacks seen in many cases of malaria.

The trophozoites that are left over during division can, in the course of the next day,
develop into the sexual form, the gametocyte, which can be taken up by a blood-sucking
mosquito and start another cycle.

The incubation period (time from infection to development of the disease) is usually from 7
to 30 days
 30

L.O: describe and evaluate strategies to control malaria

ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS: Drugs that kill the parasite that causes malaria can be used to treat
and prevent the disease. These drugs are called anti-malarial. Different drugs target different
features of the parasite’s biology and life cycle. For example, chloroquine targets the blood
stages of the life cycle whilst primaquine removes the dormant Liver stages.
Because of this, drugs are often used in combination with each other to make sure the malaria
parasite is removed from all areas of the body. For example, primaquine can be used along with
chloroquine to treat Plasmodium vivax.
VECTOR CONTROL: Vector control has been proven to successfully reduce or
interrupt malaria transmission when coverage is sufficiently high. The two core, broadly
applicable measures for malaria vector control are long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and
indoor residual spraying (IRS).
Long-lasting insecticidal nets
Sleeping under a net treated with an effective insecticide can reduce contact between
mosquitoes and humans by providing both a physical barrier and an insecticidal effect.
Population-wide protection can result from the killing of mosquitoes on a large scale where
there is high access and usage of such nets within a community.
Indoor residual spraying
IRS involves spraying an effective dose of insecticide with a long residual activity, typically
once or twice per year. The insecticide is sprayed on indoor walls and ceilings where malaria
vectors are likely to rest after biting. To confer significant community protection, IRS needs
to be implemented at a high level of coverage with sustained efficacy throughout the malaria
transmission season or seasons. Globally, an estimated 116 million people (equivalent to 4%
of the at-risk population) were protected by IRS in 2014
ERADICATION: Malaria elimination is the interruption of local transmission (reduction to
zero incidence of indigenous cases) of a specified malaria parasite species in a defined
geographic area; continued measures are required to prevent re-establishment of transmission.
 31

Malaria eradication is defined as the permanent reduction to zero of the worldwide incidence
of malaria infection caused by all species of human malaria parasites. Once eradication has
been achieved, intervention measures are no longer needed.
Path to malaria elimination
Countries are situated at different points along the road to elimination. The rate of progress
will depend on the strength of the national health system, the level of investment in malaria
control and a number of other factors, including biological determinants; the environment;
and the social, demographic, political and economic realities of a particular country.
Malaria elimination efforts are driven by ministries of health in endemic countries. As
countries approach elimination, they continue to receive technical support from WHO and
partners and, in some cases, financial support from the Global Fund and other donors.
However, most elimination efforts are financed largely through domestic resources.
L.O: describe strategies to control cholera
Cholera is a disease caused by drinking water contaminated with Vibrio cholerae bacteria.
Cholera is a life-threatening problem in developing nations worldwide, especially in the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Africa and the Middle East. The disease can affect people of any
age and sex, with results ranging from mild illness to severe, sudden symptoms.[1] At its worst,
cholera causes massive fluid loss from gray, watery stool, often accompanied by vomiting,
muscle cramps, and severe thirst.
The preventive measures include:
Purify your water. If you are in an area known to have cholera, treat or purify any water you get
before you drink it. There are many ways to purify water, but some of the best and most efficient
include:
Boiling the water. Put the water in a clean pot or heat-resistant container and bring it to a boil
over heat. Continue to let the water boil and bubble for at least one minute, then remove it from
the heat. Let the water cool down a bit before you drink.
Use bleach. Add around eight drops of bleach to a gallon of water or two drops of bleach for
every one liter of water. Shake and let the water stand for at least 30 minutes before you drink it.
Use iodine purification tablets or liquid. Iodine works as a water purifier, which you can get
prepackaged as tablets at most outdoor adventure stores and pharmacies. Follow the instructions
on tablets’ packaging. If you have a liquid 2% tincture of iodine, you can add five drops to every
quart of clear water
Chlorination: Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine (Cl.) or hypochlorite to
water. This method is used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is
highly toxic. In particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such
as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
Dispose of waste properly. You should always defecate in a bathroom. However, sometimes
this may not be possible, like when you are hiking in a remote part of a third world country. If
you do have to go to the bathroom outside, make sure that you get as far away from a water
source as possible because it can contaminate the water.

 After going to the bathroom, bury your feces and wash your hands with clean water and soap.[24]
 32

 You can also defecate into a plastic bag, tie it up, and bury it far away from a water source.
 If you are concerned a bathroom might have cholera in it, clean it with a bleach mixture. Mix one
part bleach with nine parts water and clean everything thoroughly.
Maintain your hygiene. Make sure that you and your surroundings are always clean, which will
help to keep you from getting cholera. Bathe twice a day with water that has been treated. If you
can’t bathe with treated water, try to keep water from getting into your eyes, mouth, nose, and
ears.
Ensure that your bathroom is at least 30 meters, or 98.4 ft, from your water source. This will
prevent your water source from contamination.
SELF ASSESSMENT
33
 34

MARK SCHEMES
WATER AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Water usage

WATER QUALITY AND AVAILAIBILITY

35
36
 37

WATER POLLUTION ITS SOURCES AND EFFECTS

 38

MANAGING WATER RELATED DISEASE SELF ASSESSMENT

39