PASSAGE PLANNING

TECHNIQUE COURSE
INTRODUCTION
Course Overview
• This course aims to provide knowledge and guidance on
voyage and passage planning to Masters and navigating
officers who are required to plan and conduct a passage as
required by SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 34 and meeting the
minimum standards of competence for navigation as defined
in A-VIII/2, Part 2 (Voyage Planning) of the STCW Code.
• It takes into account the guidelines and recommendations
contained in IMO Resolution A893(21) and other recognized
industry publications to enable ships personnel to produce
comprehensive plans acceptable to Port State and Vetting
Inspectors demonstrating that a vessel is being safely
navigated.
Competencies to be Achieved
• A trainee who completes this course will have
a comprehensive understanding of current
regulatory requirements and be able to
demonstrate proficiency in passage planning
techniques
Importance of Voyage Planning
• The development of a plan for voyage or
passage, as well as the close and continuous
monitoring of the vessel's progress and
position during the execution of such a plan,
are of essential importance for safety of life at
sea, safety and efficiency of navigation and
protection of the marine environment.
Importance of Voyage Planning
• The need for voyage and passage planning
applies to all vessels.
• There are several factors that may impede the
safe navigation of all vessels and additional
factors that may impede the navigation of large
vessels or vessels carrying hazardous cargoes.
• These factors will need to be taken into account
in the preparation of the plan and in the
subsequent monitoring of the execution of the
plan.
Importance of Voyage Planning
• Voyage and passage planning includes
appraisal, i.e. gathering all information
relevant to the contemplated voyage or
passage; detailed planning of the whole
voyage or passage from berth to berth,
including those areas necessitating the
presence of a pilot; execution of the plan; and
the monitoring of the progress of the vessel in
the implementation of the plan.
PASSAGE PLANNING
Planning Principles

• The passage plan should

make it easier for the
bridge team to navigate
the ship safely. It should
be comprehensive,
detailed and easy to
interpret.
Planning Stages – Owner’s Voyage
Instructions
• The primary guidance for voyage planning are
the guidelines set down by the vessel's owners.
• The owners should require strict compliance with
the Convention on the international regulations
for preventing collisions at sea, exclusion and
separation zones and established policies for
under-keel clearance, distances navigation
hazards are to be passed, etc.
Planning Stages – Owner’s Voyage
Instructions
• They may also indicate how the voyage track is
to be marked on the charts and how it should
be verified.
• Normally the voyage track will be drawn on the
voyage charts by the master or ship's navigator
and verified independently by the master or a
second officer. Each leg of the voyage track
must be measured to determine its length in
nautical miles and the true course.
Planning Stages – Owner’s Voyage
Instructions
• A written voyage plan is prepared while courses are
being laid down on the chart. The voyage plan should
indicate:
• The watch conditions expected to be set at each leg
of the voyage.
• Frequency of position fixing and navigation aids to be
used. Where/when the master is to be called.
• Seasonal considerations and weather routing.
• Minimum distance(s) off for passing navigation
hazards.
Planning Stages – Owner’s Voyage
Instructions
• Passage plans for restricted waters are particularly
important as these are the most difficult and
dangerous parts of the voyage. All officers should
review the plan during preparation and be fully
aware of its details.
• The true course of each track segment must be
marked on the chart. On some ships, the sounding
line representing the shallowest navigable water for
the ship is coloured in with red ink, as are all
submerged hazards in deeper water.
Planning Stages – Owner’s Voyage
Instructions
• Owner's instructions regarding navigation in
ice and use of weather routing services must
be followed unless they conflict with the
charterer's instructions, in which case the
owner must be advised requesting
clarification.
Planning Stages – Owner’s Voyage
Instructions
• In any case where the master is in doubt about the
voyage orders, or believes that a more efficient or
safe voyage plan could be used, he is required to
proceed on the safest course while advising the
charterer and requesting clarification.
• Owners will indicate if master is to participate in
the automated merchant vessel reporting
(AMVER), system operated by the US Coast Guard.
Planning Stages – Charterer’s Voyage
Instructions
• The voyage objective of the charterer is to get
the vessel to the next port as rapidly as possible.
Intelligent charterers will issue voyage planning
instructions which place safety foremost, but
they will also expect the maximum of efficiency
and economy within those guidelines.
• Charterers expect the ship to be adequately
provided with charts, publications and the latest
navigation notices and warnings.
Planning Stages – Charterer’s Voyage
Instructions
• Traffic separation schemes and ice navigation,
speed, ballast, reserve bunkers, and water and
timing of arrivals are usually discussed in
charterer's instructions.
• Any navigation decisions which have a commercial
impact should be communicated to the owner and
charterer to avoid later claims for deviation or lack
of adequate speed performance.
Planning Stages – Confirmation of
Destination
• When the port of destination has been
confirmed, the intended voyage shall be
planned in advance, taking into consideration
all pertinent information, and any course laid
down shall be checked before the voyage
commences.
Planning Stages – Confirmation of
Destination
• The chief engineer officer shall, in consultation
with the master, determine in advance the
needs of the intended voyage, taking into
consideration the requirements for fuel,
water, lubricants, chemicals, expendable and
other spare parts, tools, supplies and any
other requirements.
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• All information relevant to the contemplated
voyage or passage should be considered. The
following items should be taken into account
in voyage and passage planning:
• the condition and state of the vessel, its
stability, and its equipment; any operational
limitations; its permissible draught at sea in
fairways and in ports; its manoeuvring data,
including any restrictions;
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• any special characteristics of the cargo
(especially if hazardous), and its distribution,
stowage and securing on board the vessel;
• the provision of a competent and well-rested
crew to undertake the voyage or passage;
• requirements for up-to-date certificates and
documents concerning the vessel, its
equipment, crew, passengers or cargo;
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• appropriate scale, accurate and up-to-date
charts to be used for the intended voyage or
passage, as well as any relevant permanent
or temporary notices to mariners and
existing radio navigational warnings;
• accurate and up-to-date sailing directions,
lists of lights and lists of radio aids to
navigation; and
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• any relevant up-to-date additional
information, including:
• mariners' routeing guides and passage
planning charts, published by competent
authorities;
• climatological, hydrographical, and
oceanographic data as well as other
appropriate meteorological information;
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• availability of services for weather routeing
(such as that contained in Volume D of the
World Meteorological Organization's
Publication No. 9);
• existing ships' routeing and reporting
systems, vessel traffic services, and marine
environmental protection measures;
• volume of traffic likely to be encountered
throughout the voyage or passage;
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• if a pilot is to be used, information relating to pilotage
and embarkation and disembarkation including the
exchange of information between master and pilot;
• available port information, including information
pertaining to the availability of shore-based emergency
response arrangements and equipment; and
• any additional items pertinent to the type of the vessel
or its cargo, the particular areas the vessel will
traverse, and the type of voyage or passage to be
undertaken.
Planning Stages – Appraisal
• On the basis of the above information, an
overall appraisal of the intended voyage or
passage should be made.
• This appraisal should provide a clear indication
of all areas of danger; those areas where it will
be possible to navigate safely, including any
existing routeing or reporting systems and vessel
traffic services; and any areas where marine
environmental protection considerations apply.
Planning Stages – Planning
• On the basis of the fullest possible appraisal, a
detailed voyage or passage plan should be
prepared which should cover the entire
voyage or passage from berth to berth,
including those areas where the services of a
pilot will be used.
PASSAGE / VOYAGE
PLANNING FORM
SAMPLE
Planning Stages – Planning
• The detailed voyage or passage plan should
include the following factors:
• the plotting of the intended route or track of the
voyage or passage on appropriate scale charts: the
true direction of the planned route or track should
be indicated, as well as all areas of danger, existing
ships' routeing and reporting systems, vessel
traffic services, and any areas where marine
environmental protection considerations apply;
Planning Stages – Planning
• the main elements to ensure safety of life at sea,
safety and efficiency of navigation, and
protection of the marine environment during
the intended voyage or passage; such elements
should include, but not be limited to:
• safe speed, having regard to the proximity of
navigational hazards along the intended route or
track, the maneuvering characteristics of the
vessel and its draught in relation to the available
water depth;
Planning Stages – Planning
• necessary speed alterations en route, e.g.,
where there may be limitations because of
night passage, tidal restrictions, or allowance
for the increase of draught due to squat and
heel effect when turning;
• minimum clearance required under the keel
in critical areas with restricted water depth;
• positions where a change in machinery
status is required;
Planning Stages – Planning
• course alteration points, taking into account the
vessel's turning circle at the planned speed and
any expected effect of tidal streams and currents;
• the method and frequency of position fixing,
including primary and secondary options, and the
indication of areas where accuracy of position
fixing is critical and where maximum reliability
must be obtained;
• use of ships' routeing and reporting systems and
vessel traffic services;
Planning Stages – Planning
• considerations relating to the protection of the
marine environment; and
• contingency plans for alternative action to
place the vessel in deep water or proceed to a
port of refuge or safe anchorage in the event of
any emergency necessitating abandonment of
the plan, taking into account existing shore-
based emergency response arrangements and
equipment and the nature of the cargo and of
the emergency itself.
Planning Stages – Planning
• The details of the voyage or passage plan
should be clearly marked and recorded, as
appropriate, on charts and in a voyage plan
notebook or computer disk.
• Each voyage or passage plan as well as the
details of the plan, should be approved by the
ships' master prior to the commencement of
the voyage or passage.
Planning Stages – Execution
• Having finalized the voyage or passage plan,
as soon as time of departure and estimated
time of arrival can be determined with
reasonable accuracy, the voyage or passage
should be executed in accordance with the
plan or any changes made thereto.
Planning Stages – Execution
• Factors which should be taken into account
when executing the plan, or deciding on any
departure therefrom include:
• the reliability and condition of the vessel's
navigational equipment;
• estimated times of arrival at critical points for
tide heights and flow;
Planning Stages – Execution
• meteorological conditions, (particularly in
areas known to be affected by frequent
periods of low visibility) as well as weather
routeing information;
• daytime versus night-time passing of danger
points, and any effect this may have on
position fixing accuracy; and
• traffic conditions, especially at navigational
focal points.
Planning Stages – Execution
• It is important for the master to consider whether any
particular circumstance, such as the forecast of restricted
visibility in an area where position fixing by visual means
at a critical point is an essential feature of the voyage or
passage plan, introduces an unacceptable hazard to the
safe conduct of the passage; and thus whether that
section of the passage should be attempted under the
conditions prevailing or likely to prevail.
• The master should also consider at which specific points
of the voyage or passage there may be a need to utilize
additional deck or engine room personnel.
Planning Stages – Monitoring
• The plan should be available at all times on the
bridge to allow officers of the navigational watch
immediate access and reference to the details of
the plan.
• The progress of the vessel in accordance with the
voyage and passage plan should be closely and
continuously monitored.
• Any changes made to the plan should be made
consistent with these Guidelines and clearly
marked and recorded.
Checklist Summary

VOYAGE PLAN
CHECKLIST
NAVIGATIONAL
WATCH
Principles of Navigational Watch
• The following principles shall be observed to ensure
that a safe navigational watch is maintained:
• The Master of every ship is bound to ensure that the
watchkeeping arrangement are adequate for
maintaining a safe navigational watch. Under his
general direction, the officers of the watch are
responsible for navigating the ship safely during their
periods of duty when they will be particularly
concerned to avoid collision and stranding.
Principles of Navigational Watch
• The basic principles including but not limited to
the following shall be taken into account by all
ships:
• Watch arrangements
• Fitness for duty
• Navigation
• Look-out
• Navigation with pilot embarked
• Protection of the marine environment
Monitoring of Navigational Watch
in accordance with COLREGS 1972
• Lights, shapes and sound signals
• The OOW must always comply with the COLREGS.
Compliance not only concerns the conduct of vessels
under the steering and sailing rules, but displaying
the correct lights and shapes and making the correct
sound and light signals.
• A vessel drifting off a port with her engines
deliberately shut down is not, for example, a 'vessel
not under command' as defined by rule 3(f) of the
COLREGS
Monitoring of Navigational Watch
in accordance with COLREGS 1972
• Caution should always be observed when approaching
other vessels.
• Vessels may not be displaying their correct light or shape
signals, or indeed their signals could be badly positioned
and obscured by the ship's structure when approached
from certain directions.
• In sea areas where traffic flow is regulated, such as port
approaches and traffic separation schemes, it may be
possible to anticipate movements from certain ship types.
• In these circumstances it is prudent to allow extra sea-
room, as long as it is safe to do so.
Monitoring of Navigational Watch
in accordance with COLREGS 1972
• Collision avoidance action
• In general, early and positive action should always be
taken when avoiding collisions, and once action has
been taken, the OOW should always check to make
sure that the action taken is having the desired effect.
• VHF radio should not be used for collision avoidance
purposes. Valuable time can be wasted attempting to
make contact, since positive identification may be
difficult, and once contact has been made
misunderstandings may arise.
Monitoring of Navigational Watch
in accordance with COLREGS 1972
• Collision avoidance detection
• In clear weather, the risk of collision can be detected
early by taking frequent compass bearings of an
approaching vessel to ascertain whether or not the
bearing is steady and the vessel is on a collision
course. Care however must be taken when
approaching very large ships, ships under tow or
ships at close range. An appreciable bearing change
may be evident under these circumstances but in
fact a risk of collision may still remain.
COLLISION CASE STUDY IN
GOOD VISIBILITY
Monitoring of Navigational Watch
in accordance with COLREGS 1972
• In restricted visibility, conduct of vessels is
specifically covered by the COLREGS. In
these conditions, radar and in particular
electronic radar plotting can be effectively
used for assessing risk of collision.
• The OOW should take the opportunity to
carry out radar practice in clear visibility,
whenever it is possible.
COLLISION CASE STUDY IN
POOR VISIBILITY
Bridge Team Procedures
• All ship's personnel who have bridge
navigational watch duties will be part of the
bridge team. The master and pilot(s), as
necessary, will support the team, which will
comprise the OOW, a helmsman and look-
out(s) as required.
• The OOW is in charge of the bridge and the
bridge team for that watch, until relieved.
Bridge Team Procedures
• It is important that the bridge team works
together closely, both within a particular
watch and across watches, since decisions
made on one watch may have an impact on
another watch.
• The bridge team also has an important role in
maintaining communications with the engine
room and other operating areas on the ship.
Navigation Planning for All
Conditions
• When planning a navigation, it is important to
use appropriate strategies and contingency
plans in order to deal with various factors,
such as:
• encountering restricted visibility
• expected meteorological conditions
• navigational hazards and no go areas
• making landfall
Navigation Planning for All
Conditions
• accuracy of position fixing required in critical areas
• encountering or navigating in ice infested waters
• areas of restricted / confined waters
• traffic separation schemes en-route
• expected traffic density
• areas of extensive tidal effects
• ship reporting requirements in vessel traffic service
(VTS) areas
• approaching a port or anchorage
Contingency Plan for Critical Points
of the Passage
• Contingency planning should be made at the planning
stage and clearly shown on the chart so that the bridge
team does not spend looking for and planning safe
action when the passage does not go as planned
• Contingency planning includes:
• Alternative course
• Waiting area
• Safe anchorage
• Emergency berth
PLANNING TOOLBOX
Wheel Over Position
• Alteration points should be marked off with
bearings/ranges of terrestrial targets and/or
geographical coordinates.
• Wheel over positions shall be marked using
ships maneuvering data while navigating in
confined waters and large scale charts.
Wheel Over Position
• To calculate for wheel over position:
• First calculate your turn radius:
• Radius = (Speed / Rate of Turn) x 0.96
• Radius = ( 20 kts / 5 degrees RoT) x 0.96
• Radius = 3.84 nautical miles
Wheel Over Position
1. Construct your course line as depicted.
Wheel Over Position
2. Draw two parallel indexes at ‘R’ distance
from your course line inside the turn.
Wheel Over Position
3. Where the two parallel indices meet, this is your
datum.
4. Take a pair of Pencil Compass, and spread them to
3.84nm distance.
5. Draw the turn radius onto your course using the
Pencil Compass from the datum point.
6. F = your ships length. On a 300m vessel this is
around 0.16 nautical miles. From applying helm it
will take roughly one ships length for the turn to
commence.
Wheel Over Position
7. Your wheel over point is approximately ‘F’
distance from where the turn radius intersects
with your initial course.
Position Fixing – Monitoring
• Monitoring is ensuring that the ship is
following the pre-determined passage plan
and is a primary function of the officer of the
watch.
• For this, he may be alone; assisted by other
ship’s personnel; or acting as back up and
information source to another officer having
the conn.
Position Fixing – Methods
• Any coastal feature that can be seen by the navigator,
can be used for position finding. The conscientious
seafarer should practice these methods whenever
opportunity arises, as the value of any method depends
on being able to determine position promptly.
• The Cross Bearing Fix is probably the most common for
position finding at greater distances from shore, when
smaller coastal features are indiscernable. Other
methods will be more appropriate under varying
circumstances.
Position Fixing – Methods
• Cross Bearing Fix
Position Fixing – Methods
• Bearing and Loom
• This accurate fix can be used only when an object is on the horizon. Most bearings of this type would be taken of the light of a
lighthouse breaking the horizon line. Land just visible on the horizon could be just as useful during the day, although not as
accurate.
Position Fixing – Methods
• Position Lines
Position Fixing – Methods
• Running fix
• The most widely used method of obtaining a fix, where there is only one prominent object in sight.
• Running Fix on Two Objects
• Sometimes it is not possible to take two bearings on the same navigation mark. The running fix can be adapted by transferring the first bearing taken of an object, to a
second bearing taken of another object, to obtain a fix.
Position Fixing – Methods
• Running Fix
Position Fixing – Methods
• Running Fix on Two Objects
Position Fixing – Methods
• Doubling the Angle On the Bow
• Similar to the running fix, but the geometry involves a simple isosceles triangle, i.e. the distance run will equal the distance from the object. It is a handy way of determining
distance off when it is difficult to consult a chart.
• Bearing and Depth
• Although not a particularly accurate fix, it can be useful when shore objects are scarce, or visibility is poor. Soundings and contour lines need to be clearly marked on the chart.
Position Fixing – Methods
• Doubling the Angle On the Bow
Position Fixing – Frequency
• Irrespective of the method of fixing to be used, it is necessary to establish the required frequency of the fixing.
• Quite obviously, this is going to depend on the circumstances prevailing, e.g., a ship close to danger will need to be fixed much more frequently
than one in the open sea.
• As guideline, it is suggested that fixing should be at a time period such that it is not possible for a ship to be put into danger between fixes.
Abort and Point of No Return
• When approaching constrained waters the
ship may be in a position beyond which it will
not be possible to do other than to proceed.
• The term “point of no return,” will be the
position where the ship enters so narrow that
there is no room to return or where it is not
possible to retrace the track due to a falling
tide and insufficient UKC.
Abort and Point of No Return
• The reason for not proceeding and deciding to
abort will vary according to the circumstances but
may include:
1. Deviation from approach line
2. Machinery failure or malfunction
3. Instrument failure or malfunction
4. Non availability of tugs or berth
5. Dangerous situations ashore or in the harbour
6. Any situation where it is deemed unsafe to proceed
Abort and Point of No Return
Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
• Under keel clearance (UKC) means the
minimum clearance available between the
deepest point of the vessel and the bottom in
still water
• Static deep draft is the draft of the vessel with
speed equal to zero

UKC = (Charted Depth of Water + Height of Tide) – (Static Deep Draft)

Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
SPEED FWD.
00 knots

“STATIC” UKC
Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
SPEED FWD.
13 knots

“DYNAMIC” UKC or

“NETT” UKC
Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
• Masters and pilots should use their vessel's deepest
draft in still water when calculating UKC
• Masters and pilots should apply a plus or minus
allowance for the tide when calculating depth of
water, and consider the following factors:
• Vessel's trim and list characteristics
• Depth of the transit area
• Depth at the facility or anchorage
• Tide and current conditions
• Weather impact on water depth
Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
Squat
Squat
• The squat effect is
the hydrodynamic phenomenon by which
a vessel moving quickly through shallow
water creates an area of lowered pressure
that causes the ship to be closer to
the seabed than would otherwise be
expected.
Squat
• This phenomenon is caused when water that
should normally flow under the hull encounters
resistance due to the close proximity of the hull to
the seabed.
• This causes the water to move faster, creating a
low-pressure area with lowered water level
surface. This squat effect results from a
combination of (vertical) sinkage and a change of
trim that may cause the vessel to dip towards the
stern or towards the bow.
Squat
Signs of Squat
• Changing wave pattern around ship
• Vibrations
• Ship slows down
• Trim changes
• Loss of maneuverability, steerage,….
• Turning circle diameter x2, … x3…
Signs of Squat
Squat – Formula
• The simplified formula for vessels in unrestricted waters (open water conditions)
reads as follows:

• Where in:
• Cb = Block Coeficient
• V = Ship’s speed in knots
Squat – Formula
• In restricted waters (confined water
condition) Dr. Barras assumes an increase of
Squat as follows:
Landfall Lights
• At the planning stage of the voyage, the
navigator will have the opportunity to
determine the maximum distance at which a
landfall light should become visible
• A comparison of nominal and geographical
ranges can be made and the lesser of the two
selected as being the range at which the light
should be seen, assuming meteorological
visibility of at least 10 nautical miles
Landfall Lights
• When making a landfall it should not be necessary
for the OOW to have examine the chart minutely to
fined which lights will be seen first
• These should have been clearly shown on the chart
so that the OOW can concentrate on actually
looking for the light concerned, not looking on the
chart trying to discover which lights should be
visible
• This needs to be done at the planning stage, not the
operational stage when the OOW concerned may be
too busy to spend time behind the chart table
Charts
• A nautical or marine
chart is a conventional
graphic representation
on a plane surface of a
navigable portion of
the earth’s surface.
There are various
charts but the most
widely used are the
British Admiralty Charts
Chart – Projection
• A method of
presenting all or part
of the surface of a
sphere or a spheroid
upon a plane surface
• Mercator projection
• Gnomonic projection
• Polar stereographic
projection
Chart – Classification by Scale
• Sailing chart – smallest scale charts generally
smaller than 1:600,000
• General chart – intended for coastwise
navigation having a scale range of about
1:150,000 to 1:600,000
• Coastal chart – intended for inshore coastwise
navigation having a scale range of 1:50,000 to
1:150,000
• Harbor chart – intended for navigation and
anchorage in harbors and small waterways.
The scale is generally larger than 1:50,000
Chart – Classification by Scale
• Sailing Chart
Chart – Classification by Scale
• General Chart
Chart – Classification by Scale
• Coastal Chart
Chart – Classification by Scale
• Harbor Chart
Ship’s Profile and Datum Shift
• When transferring positions from one chart to
another, mariners should bear in mind that
the datum of the two charts may be different,
or that the datum on one or the other may be
unknown.
• Where this is the case, Admiralty charts carry
a Position Note stating the shift required to be
applied in transferring positions between the
charts concerned.
Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS)
• A Traffic Separation
Scheme or TSS is a traffic-
management route-system
ruled by the IMO. The
traffic-lanes (or clearways)
indicate the general
direction of the ships in that
zone; ships navigating
within a TSS all sail in the
same direction or they cross
the lane in an angle as close
to 90 degrees as possible.
Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS)
• TSSs are used to regulate the traffic at busy,
confined waterways or around capes. Within a
TSS you normally see at least one traffic-lane
in each main-direction, turning-points, deep-
water lanes and separation zones between
the main traffic lanes. In most cases you can
find an "inshore traffic zone" between the
traffic-lanes and the coast.
Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS)
• A ship navigating in a traffic-lane should sail in
the general direction of that lane. The body of
water between two opposite lanes are no-
go areas: shipping is not allowed in these
areas (compare this with the central
reservation of a road), so the risks for head-on
collisions is greatly reduced.
Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS)
Anchor Plan
• Anchor plans should
clearly be marked on
the chart so that in
case of emergency it
will be easier for the
bridge team to find
the safe anchor
position on the area.
Radar Horizon
• The radar horizon is a little farther away than the visible
horizon—about 15% farther because microwaves are
subject to less atmospheric bending than light. However,
the same principles apply to the radar horizon as to the
visible horizon.
Radar Horizon
• The higher you locate your radar scanner, the
farther the radar will be able to see objects at
sea level.
Radar Horizon
• Your radar may be able to detect objects that
are beyond the horizon because some portion
may project above the horizon. Sailboats with
radar reflectors in their rigging may be visible
to your radar even when the hull is not. Also,
your radar will be able to see the tops of
mountains at considerable distances, even
though the shore line is over the horizon.
Use of Tidal Stream – Tables
• Tide tables, sometimes called tide charts, are
used for tidal prediction and show the daily
times and heights of high water and low
water, usually for a particular location. Tide
heights at intermediate times (between high
and low water) can be approximately
calculated using the rule of twelfths or more
accurately by using a published tidal curve for
the location.
Use of Tidal Stream – Tables
Use of Tidal Stream – Atlases
• A tidal atlas or a tidal stream atlas is used to
predict the direction and speed of tidal
currents.
• A tidal atlas usually consists of a set of 12 or
13 diagrams, one for each hour of the tidal
cycle, for a coastal region. Each diagram uses
arrows to indicate the direction of the flow at
that time.
Use of Tidal Stream – Atlases
• The speed of the flow
may be indicated by
numbers on each
arrow or by the length
of the arrow. Areas of
slack water may be
indicated by no
arrows or the words
"slack water".
Use of Tidal Stream – Tidal Diamonds
• Tidal diamonds are symbols on
British admiralty charts that indicate the
direction and speed of tidal streams.
• The symbols consist of a Latin letter in
a rhombus, printed in purple ink. On any
particular chart each tidal diamond will have a
unique letter starting from "A" and continuing
alphabetically.
Use of Tidal Stream – Tidal Diamonds
• Somewhere on the chart, generally on land,
will be a Tidal Diamond table. This contains a
grid of thirteen rows and three columns for
each Diamond.
• The rows are the hours of the tidal cycle
showing the 6 hours before high water, high
water itself and the 6 hours after high water.
Use of Tidal Stream – Tidal Diamonds
• The columns show
the bearing of the tidal
stream and its speed, in
knots, at both spring
tide and neap tide. The
times on the table are
related to the high water
of the standard port
displayed on the table.
Use of Tidal Stream – Harmonic
Constant
• Harmonic constants are created by analysis of
regular water level readings taken by
automated tide stations.
• A tide station whose predictions trace directly
to harmonic constants that were derived from
water level readings for that same station is
called a reference station.
Use of Tidal Stream – Harmonic
Constant
• The simplified harmonic method may be used
for the prediction of tidal streams.
• In most cases, constants are given for one
direction only and the tidal streams may be
considered to be rectilinear. In these cases,
the predictions will give positive and negative
values for the rates which are in the direction
shown.
Tidal Predictions
• Tidal predictions are a
representation of the tide
as it actually occurs. They
are a hind cast or forecast
based on a series of
observations at the place,
that is, tidal prediction is an
extrapolative process using
one of the so-called
harmonic or non-harmonic
methods.
MONITORING
TECHNIQUES
Parallel Indexing (PI)
• Parallel indexing is a technique defined by
William Burger in the 1957 book The Radar
Observer's Handbook.
• This technique involves creating a line on the
chart that is parallel to the ship's course, but
offset to the left or right by some
distance. This parallel line allows the navigator
to maintain a given distance away from
hazards.
Parallel Indexing (PI)
• The Parallel Index (PI) is a useful method of
monitoring cross-track tendency in both poor and
good visibility. It is a good practice to mark the
planned PI on the chart inconspicuously at the
planning stage.
• Like any radar technique, it is advisable to practice
using PI’s extensively in good visibility before
placing total reliance on them when thick weather
makes visual navigational methods impossible.
Parallel Indexing (PI)
Cross Index Range (CIR Method)
• This is based upon the lateral distance of the
planned track from the selected object. It can
be employed at all time when using PI having
identified all the hazards, marked the limiting
danger line and tracks.
• A suitable charted object should be selected.
A line parallel to the planned track should be
drawn on the inner edge of the selected
object and not through it.
Cross Index Range (CIR Method)
• Maximum margin of safety should be marked
on either side or the side with off laying
danger. perpendicular distance should be
measured from the track to this line.
• This distance is the cross index range
(CIR)distance should also be measured for the
margin of safety (MOS). This method can also
be used for course alteration.
Bearing and Range Method – Straight
Index Lines
• The bearing and range from the waypoint and
the wheel over mark should be determined.
• The range and bearing from the waypoint
should be marked on the chart in reverse
direction.
Bearing and Range Method – Curved
Index Lines
• Turn within narrow and congested water are critical
and required good monitoring, which can also be
achieved through PI technique. This can be formed in
two ways:
a) Where it is just alteration between two tracks the
curve can be plotted on the chart using the
manoeuvering information on the turning circle of the
ship. A suitable object on the inside of the curve should
be selected and range and bearing for different change
of heading from these object should be plotted. This
information can then be transferred to the chart.
Bearing and Range Method – Curved
Index Lines
b) Alternatively the ship may be navigating through
a narrow channel making frequent course changes
and executing curves of different curvature using
different helms. In such case the intended position
of the ship with in the channel should be marked
which depend upon the channel may take the form
of curve bearing and range of these point from an
object conveniently fixed for indexing should be
measured for transfer to radar. This object should be
on or close to the centre of curvature of the curve.
Use of Variable Range Marker (VRM)
• The variable range marker (VRM) is used
primarily to determine the ranges to target
pips on the PPI.
• Among its secondary uses is that of providing
a visual indication of a limiting range about
the position of the observer’s ship, within
which targets should not enter for reasons of
safety.
Use of Variable Range Marker (VRM)
• The VRM is actually a
small rotating
luminous spot. The
distance of the spot
from the sweep origin
corresponds to range;
in effect, it is a
variable range ring.
Use of Variable Range Marker (VRM)
• The distance to a target pip is measured by
adjusting the circle described by the VRM so
that it just touches the leading (inside) edge of
the pip.
• The VRM is adjusted by means of a range
crank. The distance is read on a range
Counter. For better range accuracy, the VRM
should be just bright enough to see and
should be focused as sharply as possible.
Use of Variable Range Marker (VRM)
• Use of the VRM allows
accurate interpolation
of targets which lie
between range rings.
The range scale of the
VRM should coincide
with the calibrated
range rings.
Precautions with Parallel Indexing
• Masters should encourage indexing in clear
weather as well as in poor visibility as a means
of on-board training by Watch Officers.
• It should also be stipulated that the use of
indexing does not eliminate the use of other
position fixing methods and that effective
watchkeeping must include both a primary
and secondary position fixing method
wherever possible.
Precautions with Parallel Indexing
• It is imperative that in proposing and
conducting parallel indexing, the ‘index mark’
is correctly identified on the display, from the
onset of the exercise.
• Failure to confirm this mark could result in an
index-assisted grounding situation, for which
vessels would be especially vulnerable in poor
visibility.
Visual Monitoring Techniques –
Clearing Marks
• Clearing marks are
selected objects,
natural or man-made
which, when in
transit, or just open
of each other, define
a clearing line which
leads clear of danger.
Visual Monitoring Techniques –
Horizontal Danger Angle
• The horizontal angle between two objects on
shore may be used in a similar way. Objects
should be chosen lying approximately the
same distance on each side of the danger to
be cleared.
• The chart should be marked at the distance
considered safe to pass, and lines should be
drawn from the objects to the mark.
Visual Monitoring Techniques –
Horizontal Danger Angle
• The angle thus formed
is measured and, if the
angle subtended by the
objects is less than that
measured, the ship is
outside the danger and
in safety.
Visual Monitoring Techniques –
Clearing Bearings
• When clearing marks
are not available, a
line of bearing may be
drawn on the chart
through a clearly
defined object to pass
a safe distance from a
danger. This line is
called clearing bearing.
Visual Monitoring Techniques – Sector
Lights
• Some lights are
arranged so that they
shine different colors
in different
directions. These are
called sectored lights,
and they and their
sectors are marked
on the chart.
Visual Monitoring Techniques – Sector
Lights
• When you see the
light as one color you
know you are in that
sector and when the
light changes from one
color to another you
are on the position
line that defines the
edge of the sectors.
Visual Monitoring Techniques –
Leading Lights / Marks
• Leading lights are a
pair of light beacons,
used to indicate a
safe passage for
vessels entering a
shallow or dangerous
channel; and may
also be used
for position fixing.
Visual Monitoring Techniques –
Leading Lights / Marks
• At night, the lights are a form
of leading line that can be
used for safe navigation.
• The beacons consist of two
lights that are separated in
distance and elevation, so that
when they are aligned, with
one above the other, they
provide a bearing.
• Range lights are often
illuminated day and night.
COMMUNICATIONS
Proper Use of VHF Channels at Sea
• The International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has recognized that the proper use of
VHF radio communications contributes to
safety of life at sea and efficiency of
navigation.
• Any misuse of VHF communication channels
may cause serious interference with essential
communications and might cause potential
dangers to safety at sea.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
1. Before transmitting, think about the subjects
which have to be communicated and, if
necessary, prepare written notes to avoid
unnecessary interruptions and ensure that no
valuable time is wasted on a busy channel.
2. Listen before commencing to transmit to
make certain that the channel is not already
in use. This will avoid unnecessary and
irritating interference.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
3. VHF equipment should be
used correctly and in
accordance with the Radio
Regulations. The following in
particular should be avoided:
 calling on channel 16 for
purposes other than distress,
urgency and very brief safety
communications when
another channel is available;
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
 communications not related to safety and
navigation on port operation channels;
 non-essential transmissions, e.g. needless
and superfluous signals and correspondence;
 transmitting without correct identification;
 occupation of one particular channel under
poor conditions; and
 use of offensive language.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
4. Repetition of words and
phrases should be avoided
unless specifically
requested by the receiving
station.
5. When possible, the lowest
transmitter power
necessary for satisfactory
communication should be
used.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
6. AIS is used for the exchange of data in ship-
to-ship communications and also in
communication with shore-based facilities.
The purpose of AIS is to help identify vessels;
assist in target tracking; simplify information
exchange (e.g. reduce verbal reporting); and
provide additional information to assist
situation awareness.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
AIS may be used together
with VHF voice
communications. AIS should
be operated in accordance
with resolution A.917(22), as
amended by resolution
A.956(23) on Guidelines for
the onboard operational use
of shipborne automatic
identification systems (AISs).
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
7. Communication with coast
stations only
8. Communication with other
ships
9. Distress calls/messages have
absolute priority over all other
communications. When
receiving them all other
transmissions should cease and
a listening watch should be
kept.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
10.In accordance with the Radio Regulations
channel 16 may only be used for distress,
urgency and very brief safety
communications and for calling to establish
other communications which should then be
conducted on a suitable working channel.
11.If communications on a channel are
unsatisfactory, indicate change of channel
and await confirmation.
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
12.If spelling becomes necessary (e.g.
descriptive names, call signs, words that
could be misunderstood) use the spelling
table contained in the International Code of
Signals, the Radio Regulations and the IMO
Standard Marine Communication Phrases
(SMCP).
13.The words "I" and "YOU" should be used
prudently. Indicate to whom they refer
Guidelines and Techniques on the
Use of VHF at Sea
14.Every ship, while at sea, is
required to maintain watches
(Regulation on Watches in
Chapter IV of SOLAS, 1974, as
amended). Continuous
watchkeeping is required on
VHF DSC channel 70 and also
when practicable, a
continuous listening watch
on VHF channel 16.
VHF Procedures
• Calling - when calling a
coast station or another
ship, say the name of that
coast station once (twice if
considered necessary in
heavy radio traffic conditions)
followed by the phrase THIS
IS and the ship's name twice,
indicating the channel in use.
VHF Procedures
• Exchange of Messages
– when communicating with a ship whose name is
unknown but whose position is known, that position
may be used. In this case the call is addressed to all
ships.
– where a message is received and only
acknowledgement of receipt is needed, say
"received". Where a message is received and
acknowledgement of the correct message is required,
say "received, understood", and repeat message if
considered necessary.
VHF Procedures
• Exchange of Messages
– where When language difficulties exist which cannot
be resolved by use of the IMO Standard Marine
Communication Phrases , the International Code of
Signals should be used.
– Where the message contains instructions or advice,
the substance should be repeated in the reply.
– If a message is not properly received, ask for it to be
repeated by saying "Say again".
VHF Procedures
• Exchange of Messages
– f a message is received but not understood, say
"Message not understood".
– If it is necessary to change to a different channel say
"Change to channel ...." and wait for
acknowledgement before carrying out the change.
– During exchange of messages, a ship should invite a
reply by saying "over".
– The end of a communication is indicated by the word
"out".
Standard Messages
• Since most ship-to-shore communications are
exchanges of information, it is advisable to
use standard messages which will reduce
transmission time.
• Commonly used standard messages are
given in the IMO Standard Marine
Communication Phrases (SMCP) , which
should be used whenever possible.
 OTHER
INFORMATION
Time Zones
• A time zone is a region on Earth that has a
uniform standard time for legal, commercial,
and social purposes.
• It is convenient for areas in close commercial
or other communication to keep the same
time, so time zones tend to follow the
boundaries of countries and their
subdivisions.
Estimated Time of Arrival and
Departure
• The estimated time of arrival or ETA is a
measure of when a ship, vehicle, aircraft, cargo,
emergency service or computer file is expected
to arrive at a certain place.
• In this respect, the phrase or its abbreviation is
often paired with its complement, "estimated
time of departure" or "ETD", to indicate the
expected start time of a particular journey.
Tides and Currents
• Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the
combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted
by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the
Earth.
– Semi-diurnal – experience two almost equal high
tides and two low tides each day
– Diurnal – experience only one high and one low tide
each day
– Mixed tide – experience two uneven tides a day, or
sometimes one high and one low each day
The bay of Fundy at high tide, 1972 in New The bay of Fundy at low tide, 1972. As I recall,
Brunswick this was in New Brunswick
Tides and Currents
• An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement
of ocean water generated by the forces acting upon
this mean flow, such as breaking waves, wind, Coriolis
effect, cabbeling, temperature and salinity differences
and tides caused by the gravitational pull of
the Moon and the Sun.
• Depth contours, shoreline configurations and
interaction with other currents influence a current's
direction and strength. A deep current is any ocean
current at a depth of greater than 100m
VOYAGE PLANNING
EXERCISE
PASSAGE PLANNING
EXERCISE