STONEWORK

the
conservation
of stonework 01

Akemi Anne Bahatan

Kim Adrian Magtibay
 OVERVIEW
Historically, builders used locally
sourced stone, often choosing materials
for their accessibility rather than
durability. Common stones included
limestone and sandstone, which were

STONE
easy to split into rectangular blocks for
construction.

With the expansion of quarries in the

WORK
19th century, technological
advancements such as steam power
allowed the extraction and transport of
larger stone blocks over greater 02
Stone Mason Source: RC distances.
Coppin
The use of stone declined with the rise
of materials like architectural terracotta
and reinforced concrete.

However, advances in stone cutting and

finishing techniques, such as diamond
sawing, have revived interest in stone as
a durable and aesthetically pleasing
material.
 HISTORICAL
EVOLUTION
• Early Use of Locally
Available Stone
OF STONE
• Shift to Using Stones from
Distant Locations
• Impact of Stone on the
USE 03

Identity of Cities and

Regions
 EARLY USE OF LOCAL
AVAILABLE STONE
Early Filipino civilizations relied on locally available stone
for tools and structures due to transport limitations, just
like in other ancient societies.
1.Prehistoric Tools: Early Filipinos used chert,
andesite, and quartzite for crafting tools, with finds
from the Tabon Caves dating back over 50,000 years.
2.Batanes Stone Houses: The Ivatan people used
volcanic rocks to build resilient stone houses, adapting
04
to the island’s harsh climate.
3.Cordillera Rice Terraces: Indigenous communities
used local stone to build the iconic Banaue Rice
Terraces, demonstrating advanced engineering.
4.Coral Stone in Coastal Areas: In coastal regions,
coral stone was used for early structures and tools,
reflecting the materials available in maritime
environments.
 SHIFT TO USING STONES FROM
DISTANT LOCATIONS
The Romans were renowned for their ambitious
architectural projects, many of which featured marble as
a key material. Marble was highly prized for its aesthetic
appeal, durability, and symbolism of wealth and power.
While Italy had its own marble quarries, such as the
famous Carrara marble, the Romans sought marble from
across the Mediterranean to enhance the grandeur of
their structures and express their empire's dominance. 05
As transportation methods improved, stones from distant
locations became accessible
navis
lapidaria
 Key Aspects of Roman Marble
Transportation Across the
Mediterranean
The Romans imported marble from various regions, each known
for producing distinctive types of marble. Some notable sources
included:

06

GREECE EGYPT ASIA- MINOR

White Pentelic Aswan granite Proconnesian marble
marble
Impact of Stone on the Identity of
Philippine Cities and Regions
In the Philippines, the use of local stone materials has played a crucial role in shaping the
architectural and cultural identity of various cities and regions.

Local Identity through Cultural and Economic and Social

Indigenous Stone Historical Signifi cance Impact

07

Intramuros, Manila Vigan, Ilocos Romblon

Volcanic Tuff Ancestral Houses
Sur Romblon’s Marble
(Adobe)
• GRANITE
• MARBLE
• LIMESTONE
•
•
•
SANDSTONE
ADOBE
CORAL STONE
STONE
name and description
08
• TRAVERTINE
• ALABASTER
 GRANITE

SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH

Description: A durable, igneous rock composed

mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica, granite is
known for its strength and aesthetic appeal. It
often features a speckled appearance with various
colors. GRANITE STATE
HOUSE IN
Use in Heritage Structures: Granite is CONCORD, NEW
commonly used for foundations, decorative HAMPSHIRE, USA
elements, and flooring in historical buildings due to
its resistance to weathering and wear. 09
 MARBLE

MANILA CATHEDRAL

Description: Marble is a metamorphic rock formed

from limestone, characterized by its fine grain and
ability to polish to a high sheen. It comes in
various colors, including white, green, and pink.

Use in Heritage Structures: Often employed for

columns, sculptures, and flooring, marble is prized TAJ MAHAL IN
for its beauty and elegance, frequently seen in AGRA, INDIA
churches and governmental buildings in the
Philippines. 10
 LIMESTONE

BASILICA MINORE DEL

SANTO NIÑO IN CEBU
CITY

Description: A sedimentary rock primarily

composed of calcite, limestone can vary in color
from white to gray and is relatively softer than
granite and marble.

Use in Heritage Structures: Limestone has been NOTRE-DAME

used for building walls, facades, and decorative CATHEDRAL IN
details, particularly in colonial architecture. Many PARIS, FRANCE
historical churches and structures in the
Philippines feature limestone in their construction. 11
 SANDSTONE

SAN JUAN BAUTISTA

CHURCH IN MANILA

Description: Composed of compacted sand

grains, sandstone is a sedimentary rock that
ranges in color from light tan to reddish-brown. Its
texture can vary from fine to coarse.

Use in Heritage Structures: Sandstone is often NOTRE-DAME

used for walls, pavements, and ornamental CATHEDRAL IN
features due to its workability and visual appeal. In PARIS, FRANCE
the Philippines, it can be found in older structures
and traditional homes, especially in areas rich in 12
 ADOBE

CASA MANILA (INTRAMUROS,

MANILA)

Description: Adobe is a natural building material

made from a mixture of clay, sand, and straw,
which is shaped into bricks and then dried in the
sun.

Use in Heritage Structures: Adobe is widely TAOS PUEBLO

used in heritage structures, especially in regions (NEW MEXICO,
with hot, arid climates. It is known for its ability to USA)
regulate indoor temperatures, keeping buildings
cool during the day and warm at night. 13
CORAL STONE

BACLAYON CHURCH
(BOHOL)

Description: Coral stone, also known as coral

limestone, is a natural building material derived
from fossilized coral reefs.

Use in Heritage Structures: Coral stone has

been traditionally used in coastal regions, FORTALEZA DE
especially in tropical climates, for constructing SAN JUAN
walls, foundations, and decorative elements. Its (PUERTO RICO)
natural beauty and insulation qualities contribute
to the longevity and comfort of buildings. 14
 TRAVERTINE

PAOAY CHURCH (ILOCOS

NORTE)

Description: Travertine is a type of limestone that

forms through the precipitation of calcium
carbonate from mineral springs, especially hot
springs.

Use in Heritage Structures: Travertine is widely THE

used in construction and architectural design due COLOSSEUM
to its aesthetic appeal and strength. It is (ROME, ITALY)
commonly employed for flooring, walls, and
facades, as well as decorative elements such as 15
 ALABASTER

THE ALHAMBRA (GRANADA,

SPAIN)

Description: Alabaster is a soft, fine-grained

variety of gypsum or calcite, typically white or
light-colored, and often translucent. It has a
smooth, waxy texture, making it ideal for carving.
Use in Heritage Structures: Alabaster has been
historically used for delicate interior detailing due
to its softness and ease of carving. It is not WESTMINSTER
commonly used for structural elements, as it is ABBEY
relatively fragile compared to other stones. (LONDON,
ENGLAND) 16
 CONSERVATION
• Challenges in Stone
CHALLENGES
Conservation
• Natural deterioration of
stone 03
• Influence of
anthropogenic emissions
on stone decay
 WEATHERING
AND EROSION
Weathering and Erosion Exposure to rain, wind,
and temperature fluctuations leads to physical
degradation. Freeze-thaw cycles cause cracks,
while rainwater, particularly acid rain, can dissolve
or erode stone surfaces.
It is the process of breaking down rocks and
minerals on Earth’s surface due to agents like
GREAT SPHINX OF GIZA
water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and IN EGYPT
temperature changes. Once rocks break down,
erosion moves the particles away. Over time, The Great Sphinx of Giza in
weathering wears away exposed surfaces, making Egypt has suffered from wind
them more vulnerable to erosion. Weathering also and sand erosion over millennia,
contributes to soil formation as minerals mix with F resulting in significant loss of
organic material. It can be mechanical (physical O surface material. Additionally,
breaking) or chemical (alteration by chemical R the expansion and contraction
reactions), with biological weathering involving E caused by temperature changes
living organisms in both processes. Together, I contribute to the stone's
weathering and erosion shape Earth’s landscapes, G gradual wear.
like the Grand Canyon. N 16
 WEATHERING AND EROSION
Building stones used in the architectural heritage of Morelia
(México)

Building stones used in the architectural

heritage of Morelia: (a–c); Cointzio (d–g) and
Jamaica (h–j). Different decay patterns are
showed: effl orescences (a, f), differential
erosion and scaling (b, c), pitting and sanding
(e), alveolization (f, g), scaling (h, j) and
flaking (i)

MORELIA (MÉXICO)

16
 POLLUTION TAJ MAHAL
IN INDIA
Urban pollution, particularly from sulfur dioxide
(SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) emitted by
vehicles, factories, and power plants, can
significantly accelerate the decay of stone
structures. These pollutants react with water vapor
in the atmosphere to form acidic compounds, such
as sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃).
When these acids come into contact with stone
surfaces, they react with the minerals in the stone,
especially calcium carbonate, which is commonly
found in materials like limestone and marble.

This reaction leads to the formation of gypsum

(calcium sulfate), a softer, more soluble mineral
that accumulates on the stone surface. Gypsum can F
cause a range of issues, including surface O Taj Mahal in India have
blistering, flaking, and black crust formations. Over R experienced significant stone
time, the weakened stone structure becomes more E decay due to urban pollution.
vulnerable to weathering, erosion, and physical I
damage, which can compromise the integrity of G
buildings, statues, and monuments. N 16
 BIOLOGICAL GROWTH
Lichens, moss, fungi, and other microorganisms can
colonize stone surfaces, causing chemical reactions
that degrade the material. Plant roots can also
infiltrate cracks and cause structural damage.

IVY AND LICHENS MOSSES FUNGI ALGAE

CREEPERS

16
16

BIOLOGICAL GROWTH
In the case of The Ruins, you can observe areas
where moss and algae have grown on the stone
walls, contributing to the weathered and decayed
appearance of the mansion. The presence of these
biological organisms accelerates the degradation of
the stone, especially since The Ruins is an open-air
site exposed to both tropical rains and high
humidity.

While this biological growth adds a certain aesthetic

to the mansion, giving it an aged and historic feel, it
also poses a long-term threat to the structure’s
durability if not managed properly through
conservation efforts.
THE RUINS IN
BACOLOD
L
O
C
A
L
16
F
O
SALTS AND R
E
CRYSTALLIZATION I
G
N
Salt from seawater, groundwater, or de-icing agents
can penetrate stone, and when it crystallizes, it
expands, causing the stone to crack or flake.

Salt crystallization is a major cause of stone decay

in heritage materials, leading to severe
deterioration. This study tested a new biopolymeric
treatment using chitosan on two porous limestones
common in historic architecture. The goal was to
prevent harmful salt crystallization within the stone
and promote surface effl orescence instead. The
treatment was applied alone and with a
hydroxyapatite layer, which helps anchor the
chitosan and protect the stone. The results, from two
salt crystallization tests, showed that both St. Mark's
treatments are compatible with the stones, and the Basilica in
combined hydroxyapatite and chitosan treatment Venice, northern
was highly effective in reducing salt damage. Italy
16
L
O
MOISTURE INFILTRATION C
A
L

Moisture infiltration occurs when water penetrates

stone surfaces, either through rainfall, groundwater,
or condensation. This water can carry dissolved salts
or pollutants, which react with the stone, causing it
to deteriorate.
The gargoyles of San Agustin Church in
For instance, salts may crystallize inside the stone’s Manila, which are carved from volcanic tuff
(adobe), are particularly vulnerable to
pores when the water evaporates, expanding and
moisture infiltration. As rainwater runs
leading to cracking, spalling, and surface flaking. through the gargoyles, which serve as water
Cycles of wetting and drying intensify this effect, spouts, they are constantly exposed to
especially in porous stones, where repeated wetting and drying cycles.
exposure weakens the stone’s internal structure
over time. In colder climates, freeze-thaw cycles
exacerbate damage as water trapped in the stone
expands when frozen, causing further cracking and
disintegration. Over time, this repeated moisture
infiltration leads to significant structural instability,
eroding the stone’s surface and weakening its
integrity.
16
L
O
C
HUMAN ACTIVITY A
L

Human activity contributes significantly to the

deterioration of stone in historic buildings and
monuments. Airborne pollutants from industrial
emissions and vehicle exhausts, particularly sulfur In recent years, certain sections of Fort
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), react with Santiago and the Intramuros walls have
the stone’s minerals, forming acidic compounds like been defaced with graffi ti and vandalized
sulfuric acid. These acids can dissolve the stone, by individuals, prompting authorities to
increase security measures
especially calcite-rich materials such as limestone or
marble, causing surface erosion and discoloration.

Additionally, human activities like graffi ti,

vandalism, and mechanical damage from
construction, traffi c, or improper cleaning methods
can physically damage stone structures. Heavy
tourist foot traffi c around historic sites also
accelerates wear and tear, especially on floors or
pathways made of stone.
 RESTORATION
• Importance of using
EFFORTS
original or aesthetically K
similar materials in E the use of
restoration Y substitutes 03
• Challenges in finding the dismantling &
right replacement stone P rebuilding
• Consideration of technical O refinishing, inserts,
properties I repairs
N
plastic repair/dentistry
T
and consolidants
S
16

IMPORTANCE OF USING
ORIGINAL OR
AESTHETICALLY
SIMILAR MATERIALS IN
RESTORATION
Using original or aesthetically similar
materials is crucial to maintaining the
historical and cultural integrity of stone
heritage structures. These materials help
preserve the authentic appearance and
construction techniques used in the original
structure.
16

CHALLENGES IN
FINDING THE RIGHT
REPLACEMENT STONE

Sourcing the correct replacement stone is

one of the most challenging aspects of
restoration. The diffi culty lies in fi nding This approach has been tested on a
stone that matches the original in terms of variety of tuff stones from Mexico and
color, texture, and composition. Armenia, demonstrating that quarry
Additionally, quarries that supplied the waste can be eff ectively repurposed for
stone restoration
original stone may no longer be in
operation, or the stone may be naturally
depleted.
16

CONSIDERATION OF
TECHNICAL PROPERTIES

Porosity: Compatibility with Strength and Thermal

Affects how the stone existing stone: durability: expansion:
absorbs and releases The new stone The ability of the Stones with different
moisture, which should react stone to withstand thermal properties
impacts weathering. similarly to mechanical forces can crack or damage
and environmental each other if they
environmental
conditions. expand and contract
factors to avoid at different rates.
accelerated
deterioration.
16

DISMANTLING AND
REBUILDING
Dismantling and rebuilding a heritage
structure may be necessary when the
original stonework is severely deteriorated.
This process involves carefully documenting
and removing each stone, often numbering
them for precise reassembly. During
rebuilding, missing or damaged stones are
replaced with suitable materials, and the
structure is restored to its original form. This
method is labor-intensive but can save the
structure from further damage.
PHOTO
DOCUMENTATION IS A
MUST!!!
16

REFINISHING, INSERTS,
AND REPAIRS

Refi nishing Inserts Repairs

involves the gentle refer to inserting
cleaning and new sections of might include filling in
restoration of the stone into damaged cracks, missing chunks, or
stone’s surface, areas while areas where stone has
removing layers of crumbled. These repairs
maintaining the
grime or damage. should be discreet and match
structure's integrity.
the original stone as closely
as possible.
16

PLASTIC REPAIR/DENTISTRY
AND CONSOLIDANTS
Plastic repair/dentistry
refers to using modern techniques and
materials, such as resins, to fill small
gaps or cracks in the stone. This method
can help strengthen the structure
without compromising its appearance.

Consolidants
are chemical treatments applied to stone to
reinforce its structure, particularly when the
stone has become soft or brittle. These
substances penetrate the stone, binding its
particles and giving it additional strength, often
used as a preventative measure.
 STONE CONSERVATION PRACTICAL
APPROACH
International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia (2007)

LAB TEST STRUCTURAL

CONCLUSIONS REPAIR
IN-SITU TRIALS
&
RESEARCH TESTING COSTS

EXPERIMENT RECOMMENDATIONS TREATMENT

OF
STONES
SITE INTERPRETATION PREPARATIONS
INSPECTION
 2. SITE
1.RESEARCH INSPECTION
1) Building type; year of
establishment; architect; 1) Photo documentation
engineer 2) Sampling
2) Location; vicinity map - 3) In-situ preliminary analyses (T,
near the river, seas etc.; %RH, magnifier, compass, tool kit)
3) Orientation 4) Listing of a. all structural defects b.
4) Geology and all visible stone alterations
topography; quarries in the 5) Listing of all other building
vicinity; fault zone, etc. materials used
5) Climate type 6) Environmental survey
7) Interview with local residents
3. LAB TEST AND ANALYSES
1) Chemical and mineralogical type/s of stone
(sound and deteriorated stone)
2) Biological agents (photo identification)
3) Soil analysis
4) Air analysis
5) Seismic/ vibration graphs

4. EXPERIMENTATION
1) Cement/ lime/ filler formulations:
2) Herbicides and micro biocides

5. IN-SITU TRIALS AND TESTING

1) Cement/ lime/ filler formulations:
2) Herbicides and micro biocides
6. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
• Consult a Restoration Architect
• Consult a Stone Conservation Scientist

5. CONCLUSIONS
1) Identification of materials, deterioration
products, thriving biological agents
2) Causes and extent of deterioration
3) Compatible materials and appropriate chemical

6. RECOMMENDATIONS
• Repair options
• Stone treatment
• Alternative methods and materials
• Schedule of work
7. . COSTS ESTIMATES/ OPTIONS
1) Preparations
2) Materials
3) Labor

8. PREPARATIONS
1) Paper Works: documentation, contracts, permits
2) Site : clearing, coordination with local in charge
3) Materials: canvass, purchase, fabricate
a. Construction paraphernalia
b. Tools and supplies
c. Chemicals, cleaning agents, consolidants
d. Binders and fillers
4) Prepare the building:
a) preliminary cleaning- grime, dust dirt
b) removal of previous repairs
9. STRUCTURAL REPAIRS
1) Walls
2) Joints

10. TREATMENT OF STONE

1) Cleaning
2) Chemical Stability
3) Physical/ Mechanical Stability
4) Aesthetic Unity
5) Protection
CONSERVATION PROBLEMS, CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS
CONSERVATION PROBLEMS, CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS
BUILDING
WITH STONES
• Process
• Installation Techniques
• Application
QUARRYING &
EXTRACTION
The method of removal of
stones from their natural bed 09
by using different operations
 PROCESSING
CUTTING, SHAPING, POLISHING

Common tools used for shaping and cutting are gang saws,
wire saws, and diamond blades.
The stone is cut into specific sizes or shapes based on
architectural requirements.
 ROUGH SAWN
The stone is left with a
rough texture, ideal for
rustic or naturalistic designs

POLISHED
Stones like marble are
polished to achieve a
smooth, glossy surface.

CHISEL/CARVED
Hand tools are used to create
decorative details, carvings, or
precise shapes for unique design
elements.
 BINDING MATERIALS
OBTENTION PROPERTIES
obtained from gypsum sticky, resistant to
PLASTER rock that is crushed and compression and fire.
dehydrated

grey powder make

from a mixture of
CEMENT crushed and very hard and
heated limestone, resistant.
clay and gypsum.
Workability, It's used to
a binder made from
MORTAR cement and sand
hold together
construction materials
like bricks, cement
blocks and paving stone.
 MORTAR
Mixtures of binders with sand or water.

HYDRAULIC LIME MORTAR CEMENT MORTAR

Hydraulic lime is made from limestone A mix of cement, sand, and

and hardens fast with the reaction water used to bind bricks and
caused by water stones.
 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
RUBBLE MASONRY ASHLAR MASONRY
STONE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Traditional Dry-Stack Stone
Walls
Stone masonry originated with dry-stacked stonework where
the walls are carefully layed up without mortar. Gravity serves
as the glue that holds everything together.

Old Irish Houses

(Ireland)
STONE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Traditional Mortared Stone
Walls
Mortared stone walls evolved out of dry-stack stone work with
the emergence of cement mortars. The first cements were
made of burnt gypsum or lime mixed with water to make a
paste with slight bonding capability. The cement paste just
filled the gaps between the stones and cured to form a soft,
rock-like substance.

The basic formula for modern cement originated in England in

1824. It is called "Portland cement" because the color is
similar to the rocks on the English island of Portland.

With the aid of Portland cement it is possible to build a taller

stone wall that does not taper inward like a dry-stacked wall.
The cement has some ability to "glue" a stone wall together
with less care, but proper stoneworking techiques are still
important.
STONE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Veneered Stone
Walls

walls that are covered with a thin layer of

stone for decorative purposes and to
protect the building from weather and
wear. Stone veneer is also known as stone
cladding or architectural stone. It's not
meant to be load-bearing.

Instead, the structural wall is put up first,

and thin, flat stones are essentially glued
onto the face of the wall with cement
mortar. M
STONE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Slipform Stone
Walls

Formwork and
Rebars Setup
Stone Placement
Concrete Pouring

is a method where stone walls are built by combining

stonework with a concrete framework.
 CONSERVATION
• Importance of
understanding stone
STRATEGIES
characteristics before
conservation K
• Use of moisture salts & their
E
penetration studies to removal
determine optimal repair
Y 03

methods corroded metal

• Balance between aesthetic P elements
match and technical O water repellents
compatibility I
• Cleaning (water, chemical, N
abrasive and metallic stain
stone veneers & double
T
removal) walls
S
 MODERN USE AND
GLOBAL TRADE
• Globalization of Stone Use
• Increased variety of stone
03
due to improved transport
• Current trends
 INPUT INPUT INPUT INPUT INPUT
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CONCLUSION • INPUT INPUT INPUTINPUT INPUT INPUT

• INPUT INPUT INPUT
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 REFERENCE:
Graue, B., Siegesmund, S., Oyhantcabal, P., Naumann, R., Licha, T., & Simon, K. (2013, January
30). The effect of air pollution on stone decay: The decay of the Drachenfels trachyte in
industrial, urban, and rural environments-A case study of the Cologne, Altenberg and Xanten
Cathedrals - Environmental Earth Sciences. SpringerLink.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12665-012-2161-6

Taj_mahal_pollution_137.JPG. Alex Masi. (n.d.).

https://alexmasi.photoshelter.com/image/I0000XFKpnxrxJfQ

Managing biological growth on buildings. (n.d.).

https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/bio/bio.htm
08
AP photos: Glass Barriers Keep Venice’s iconic Basilica Dry. The Daily Standard. (n.d.).
https://dailystandard.com/world_news/4343/ap-photos-glass-barriers-keep-venices-iconic-
basilica-dry

Intramuros’ iconic San Agustin Church gets Kärcher cleanup treatment. BluPrint. (2024, October
10). https://bluprint-onemega.com/architecture/heritage/san-agustin-church-karcher-cleanup/

Stone Masonry Construction. https://theconstructor.org/building/stone-masonry-construction-

materials-and-classification/36306/

Stone Conservation of Spanish Colonial Structures in a Tropical Setting By Maria Bernardita

Maronilla-Reyes

Building Stone Masonry https://www.dirtcheapbuilder.com/Home_Building/Stone_Masonry.htm

 REFERENCE:
Menningen, J., Klein, C., Pötzl, C., Gross, C. J., & Siegesmund, S. (2022, October 14).
Development of restoration mortars and artificial stones for use in restoring cultural heritage
sites made from volcanic tuffs - environmental earth sciences. SpringerLink.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12665-022-10607-2

08
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH! 01