CHAPTER:2

BUILDING STONES
 Introduction:
 Stones are naturally occurring compact solid and massive
material that make the crust of the earth
 It may consist of a single mineral (monomineralic eg: quartzite,)
or of several minerals (polymineralic eg: granite)
 Rocks are the large mass of stones
 Stones used for construction are called building stones
 Building stones should possess enough strength and durability
 They are suitable for construction of the structures like
retaining walls, abutments, dams, barrages roads etc.
 Stones has been used in the construction since prehistoric age
( eg:Taj Mahal of India, Pyramids of Egypt, The great wall of China)
 Now a days it is also used for the decorative or aesthetic
quality
Historical buildings
 Introduction:
 Stones as building material lost its importance due to;

⁻ Advent of cement and steel-less bulky, stronger and more

durable
⁻ Structural strength can not ne rationally analyzed
⁻ Transportation difficulties
⁻ Dressing problems
 Classification of Stones:

Geological Physical Chemical

Classification Classification Classification

Stratified Argillaceous
Igneous Rock
Rock Rock

Metamorphic Unstratified Calcareous

Rock Rock Rock

Sedimentary Siliceous
Foliated Rock
Rock Rock
 Geological Classification
Igneous Rock
 All those rocks of the earth that
have been formed by the natural
process of cooling and
crystallization from the originally
hot and molten magma are
grouped as Igneous Rocks
 These are the most abundant rocks
in the crust
 Further distinguished into three
sub classes on the basis of their
depth of formation:
i. The Plutonic Rock
ii. The volcanic rock
iii. Hypabyssal Rock
 Geological Classification
The Plutonic Rock
 These are formed at greater depth (generally 7-10km) below the
surface. They are exposed on the surface by the erosion of the
overlying secondary rocks with the passage of time. They are
coarsely crystallized. i.e. the component of crystals can be easily
seen without the help of magnifying glass. Eg: Granite, Gabbro
etc.

Granite Gabbro
 Geological Classification
The Volcanic Rock
 These are formed on the surface of the earth from lava coming out
of numerous volcanoes that erupt from time to time. The
constituents are so small that they can be seen only after
magnifying under microscope. Basalt and trap rocks are very
common examples.

Basalt
 Geological Classification
The Hypabyssal Rock
 These are formed at shallow depth (generally 2-3km) below the
surface from magma that could not come out as lava. They show
crystal that are partly coarse and partly fine in size. Eg: Porphyries
 Geological Classification
Metamorphic Rock
 When the existing rocks are subjected to higher heat and pressure
inside the earth
 Changes the properties of initial rock
 Eg: Marble and slate (Marble from limestone and Slate from shale)
 Geological Classification
Sedimentary Rock
 Rocks which are formed by gradual deposition of disintegrated
rocks due to atmospheric action such as rain, wind, temperature
etc.
 Eg: Limestone, Dolomite, Shale, Sandstone etc.

Erosion of Transportation Deposition Transformation of

existing of eroded of eroded eroded materials
rocks materials materials into a rock
 Physical Classification
• The rocks which show distinct signs of layers
Stratified and can be easily splitted up into layers are
Rock stratified rocks
• Examples: Sand stone, Limestone

• This type of rock do not show distinct sign

Unstratified of layers and cannot be easily spiltted up
Rock into layers
• Examples: Granite, Basalt, traps etc.

• The rocks which can be splitted up into thin

Foliated sheets are known as foliated rocks
Rock • Examples: Slate, Schist etc.
 Physical Classification

Stratified Unstratified
 Chemical Classification

Argillaceous • In these rocks argil or clay predominates.

Rock • Examples: Slate, Schists, Laterires etc.

• In these rocks, the calcium carbonate

Calcareous predominates.
Rock • Examples: Limestone, Marble etc.

• In these rocks, silica predominates. The

Siliceous rocks are hard and durable. They are not
Rock easily affected by the weathering agencies.
• Examples: Granite, Quartzites etc.
 Characteristics of good building stones:
1. Appearance and colour
 Stones must look good in appearance and be of uniform colour for
decorative work.
2. Weight
 Should have a high weight to resist higher compressive forces
 Must have a specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.8
3. Structure
 Should have uniform texture, free from cavities and cracks
 Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye
4. Strength
 Should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegration
action of weather
 For heavy structures only the stones with high strength are
suitable
 Characteristics of good building stones:
5. Hardness
 Important for floors, pavement, aprons of bridges etc.
 The hardness is determined by the Mohs scale
6. Toughness
 The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as
toughness
 The stone used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads
are anticipated.
7. Seasoning
 The stone should be well seasoned
8. Weathering
 The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural
agencies should be high
 Characteristics of good building stones:
9. Porosity and Absorption
 All stones possess porosity. The presence of higher percentage of
pores may absorb rain which may deteriorate the stone
 A good stone should not absorb water more than 5% of its weight,
rejected if it is more than 15% of its weight
10. Workability
 Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and bringing it
out in the required shape and size
11. Fire resistance
 Stones must be fire resistant i.e they must retain their shape when
subjected to fire.
 Limestone can resist fire upto 800⁰C after which they disintegrate
12. Fineness of grain
 Stones that are fine grained are suitable for moulding purposes.
They can be easily carved and dressed.
 Characteristics of good building stones:
13. Compactness
 A good stone should have a compact, fine, crystalline structure.
 A compact stone is capable of withstanding external agencies
effectively
14. Durability
 It is the power of stone to resist atmospheric and other external
effects.
15. Dressing
 Act of shaping a stone for decorative purpose
 Soft and uniform textured stones can be easily dressed
 Selection and use of stone
S.N Use Name of Stone Reason for selection
1 For general building work.eg. Walls, Sand Stone Hard and durable
foundations, superstructure etc.
2 Heavy engineering work like Granite and gneiss Strong, durable
bridges
3 Building exposed to fire Compact sand stone Fire resisting property
4 Building in industrial town Granite and compact Acid and smoke proof
sand stone
5 Road metal and railway ballast Granite and basalt Hard, abrasion resistive
6 Electrical switch boards Slab of marble and slate Electric resistive,non-
absorbent to water and
easy dressing
7 Manufacture of lime Limestone Decomposed into quick
lime on heating
8 As flux in manufacture of iron Limestone Special characteristics
9 Construction of building exposed to Granite and sand stone Hardness due to
high wind blowing particles presence of silica
 Deterioration of stone
 Rain
• Physical action. Disintegration, erosion, transportation due to
alternate wetting and drying
• Chemical Action. Decomposition, oxidation and hydration of
minerals due to acids formed with rain water
 Frost
• Pierces the pores, freezes, expands and creates cracks
 Wind
• Abrasion due to wind carried dust
 Temperature changes
• Expansion and contraction affects on minerals of different
coefficients of linear expansion
 Vegetable growth
• Roots of trees and weeds in cracks
 Deterioration of stone
 Atmospheric impurities
• Smoke, fumes, acid and acid fumes from atmosphere
 Living organisms
• In the stones sometimes holes are bored by certain insects due
to which they become weak
 Movement of chemicals
• If different varieties of stones such as limestone and sandstone
are used side by side in the same structure, the chemicals
formed by the action of atmospheric agencies on one variety
may move on the other cause the deterioration of the other.
Deterioration of stone
 Preservation of stone
 Type, size, seasoned, maintenance, etc. as per use of stones
 Filling up the stone pores
 Preventive coatings (for moisture and chemical actions)
 Avoiding stones of carbonates of lime for places of smoke and
acid rain
 Limestone & sandstone, magnesium limestone & granular
limestones, etc. are not to be used near/close
 Proper selection of binding materials
 Avoid vegetation and other living organisms
 Use of suitable preservatives (emulsion of oil or paint used to
protect from deteriorating selected as per surrounding,
physical and chemical characteristics of both stones and
preservatives)
 Preservatives
 Emulsion of oil or paint
 Protect stones from external agents/ deteriorations
 Depends in physical and chemical characteristics of
preservatives, stones and the surroundings
 Must have following properties
• Applicability
• Impervious
• Colorless
• Noncorrosive and non toxic
• Durable and weather and atmospheric resistance
• Economic
 Preservatives
 Before application
• Do any maintenance works before applications
• Clean surface and joints
• Dry surface and joints
 Examples:
• Coal tar / Bitumen
• Linseed oil
• Baryta solution
• Paint
• Solution of alum and soap
• Solution of silicates
 Natural bed of stone
 The plane along which stones can be easily split is known as
natural bed of stone i.e the plain of bed on which sedimentary
stones are originally deposited
 In stone masonry work, the stone should be used in such a
way that the direction of the applied load is perpendicular to
the natural bed of stone

Position of natural bed of stone for wall construction

 Natural bed of stone
 In the case of arches, the bedding plane should be radial and
right angle to the face of the arch.

Position of natural bed of stone for arch

construction
 Quarrying of stones
 The process of extraction of suitable stones from their natural
place of occurrence for use is known as quarrying of stone.

Selection of site for quarrying:

 Availability of sound rock
 Access to quarry site
 Distance of construction site
 Proper provision of drainage of rain water
 Distance of quarry from any permanent structures
 Dressing of stones
 A process of providing a proper shape, size and smooth finish
to the rough-surfaced broken stone which is collected from a
quarry is known as dressing of stone.

Advantages of Dressing:
 Gives proper shape to the stone
 Obtain aesthetically appealing finish
 Freshly quarried stones are comparatively soft and can be
dressed easily
 Reduce the cost of transportation by reducing the size of blocks
 Possible to classify the stones for different works
Dressing of stones

Commonly used tools for dressing of stone

 Stone masonry
Different types of stone masonry:

Rubble Masonry: Stones are roughly shaped

• Random Rubble i)Uncoursed and built to course

• Square rubble i) Uncoursed, built to course and regular course
• Miscellaneous i)Polygonal
• Dry rubble

Ashlar Masonry: Stones are finely dressed

• Ashlar fine tooled

• Ashlar rough tooled
• Ashlar chamfered
• Ashlar facing
• Ashlar block Course
 Stone masonry
Random rubble-Uncoursed:
 Rubble masonry block stones are rough and irregular
 Roughest and cheapest
 Stones vary size very much
 Stone masonry
Random rubble-Built to course:
 Roughly leveled
 Courses vary 30-40cm thick
 Stone masonry
Square rubble-Uncoursed:
 Having more or less straight bed and sides
 Brought to shape by hammering or straight cut finish
 Riser (large stones)
 Leveler (thinner stones)
 Sneck or check (smaller stones)
 Stone masonry
Square rubble- Built to course:
 Leveled to courses at varying depth
 Stone masonry
Square rubble- Regular course:
 Consist of various courses of varying heights
 Height in particular course is same
 Stone masonry
Polygon rubble masonry:
 Hammer finished to irregular polygon shape face
 Stone masonry
Dry rubble masonry:
 Coursed rubble masonry in which mortar is not used in joints
 Stone masonry
Ashlar fine tooled:
 Finest type of stone masonry
 Cut to fixed cubical shape blocks
 Stone masonry
Ashlar rough tooled:
 Dressed just like fine tooled but exposed faces are dressed
rough
 Stone masonry
Ashlar rock faced:
 Exposed face is not dressed for looks
 Similar to rough tooled except there is chisel –drafted margin left
on the face
 Stone masonry
Ashlar block in course:
 Fine dressed blocks are laid in course of a depth
 Stone masonry
Ashlar chamfered:
 Exposed face is chamfered at 45⁰
 Stone masonry
Ashlar facing:
 Ashlar is used only in the face for looks
 Test for stones
There are various tests on building stones to know its properties and
suitability for various construction works. Tests on building stones
provides physical and chemical properties as well as strength and
hardness properties. Different Tests are:
a) Acid Test
b) Water Absorption Test
c) Impact test
d) Crushing Test
e) Hardness test
f) Smith’s Test
 Acid Test
 This test is carried out to understand the presence of calcium
carbonate in building stone.
 A sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken. It is placed
in a solution of hydrochloric acid having strength of one percent
and is kept there for seven days.
 Solution is agitated at intervals.
 A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its
surface free from powder at the end of this period.
 If the edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it
indicates the presence of calcium carbonate
 Such stone will have poor weathering quality. This test is usually
carried out on sandstones.
 Water Absorption Test
 Take a sample of stone about 1kg from a given sample of stone
 The sample is first weighted dry
 It is then immersed in water for 24 hours
 It is taken out of water and surface dried with damp piece of cloth
 It is weighted again
 The difference in weight indicates the amount of water absorbed by
the stone

where; W1=weight of dry specimen

W2=weight of specimen after 24 hours immersed
in water
 Impact Test
 Used to determine the toughness of a stone.
 A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from
the sample of stones.
 It is then placed on cast iron anvil of machine.
 A steel hammer of weight 2 kg is allowed to fall axially in a vertical
direction over the specimen.
 Height of first blow is 1 cm, that of second blow is 2 cm, that of
third blow is 3 cm and so on.
 Blow at which specimen breaks is noted. If it is nth blow, ‘n’
represents the toughness index of stone.
 Crushing Test
 Samples of stone is cut into cubes of size 40 x 40 x 40 mm
 Sizes of cubes are finely dressed and finished.
 Maximum number of specimen to be tested is three.
 Such specimen should be placed in water for about 72 hours prior
to test and therefore tested in saturated condition.
 Load is applied axially on the cube in a crushing test machine. Rate
of loading is 140 kg/sq.cm per minute.
 Maximum load at which specimen crushes is the crushing strength
per unit area (N/mm2)
 Hardness Test
 A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from
the sample of stone.
 It is weighed.
 The sample is placed in Dorry’s testing machine and it is subjected
to a pressure of 1250 gm.
 Annular steel disc machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 rpm.
 During the rotation of the disc, coarse sand of standard
specification is sprinkled on the top of disc.
 After 1000 revolutions, specimen is taken out and weighed.
 The coefficient of hardness is found out from the following
equation
Coefficient of hardness = 20 - (Loss of weight in gm/3)
Hardness Test
 Smith’s Test
 This test is performed to find out the presence of soluble matter in
a sample of stone.
 Few chips or pieces of stone are taken and they are placed in a glass
tube.
 The tube is then filled with clear water. After about an hour, the
tube is vigorously stirred or shaken.
 Presence of earthy matter will convert the clear water into dirty
water.
 If water remains clear, stone will be durable and free from any
soluble matter.
Thank you!!!