Materials Structural-Building Construction

22.2 Batch
1st Year, 1st Semester
Assignment-02

Names ID Numbers
N.J.J.I. Nanayakara 24568
L.R.H.K.Pathmasiri 28790
T.D.Fernando 28728
M.A.A.I.Alwis 29028
H.A.S.Madushika 28469
P.S.K.D.M.Arachchi 29242
N.M.K.Pamudini 28868
A.L.C.J.Thilakarathna 28947
W.G.R.Kavindi 28210
M.A.P.Dwelarathna 29192
A.W.H.D. Amarasinghe 28848
D.M.V.P.Disanayaka 24794

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Content.
➢ Introduction.
➢ Different types of stones.
• Granite
• Marble
• Quartzite
• Basalt
• Limestone
• Onyx
• Slate
• Sandstone

➢ Application of different stones.

➢ Installation.
➢ New developments.
➢ Cost.
➢ Market names.
➢ Advantages and disadvantages.
➢ Special details.
➢ Conclusion.

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 ➢ Introduction.
Stone is a natural material of construction. It is obtained from a quarry be designation of rocks.
Stones has been using as construction material since ancient time. Stones using foundations,
walls, pillars, lintels, beams, floors, roofs, etc. of buildings and for major engineering works such
as weirs, dams etc. Because of it special characterizes, today stones become a major material in
the construction. So, in this repot we can get an idea about different types of stones, special
characterizes and why stone is special as a building material.

➢ Different types of stones

• Granite.
Granite is the oldest igneous rock in the world. Mostly it can find throughout the continental
crest. It makes from cooling magma. Same times granite spread over the several kilometers. We
can identify some kind of components of granite. There are coarse grains of quartz (10%-50%),
potassium feldspar and sodium feldspar. The magma is making granite very slowly because
silica is highly content with magma. As a natural stone granite has different kind of faces and
colors. It is a stone resistant to scratching, cracking and heat moreover granite is strong enough
to bear significant weight and it is accepting a brilliant polish and durable. These characteristics
make it very grateful and useful dimension stone. Granite is mined worldwide, but it mostly
deposits in China, India, Brazil, Finland and South Africa. Because of special characteristics
granite is mostly use in building construction. One of biggest problem in using granite is its high
price and cost of installations. As and example Norwegian blue granite is to day world famous
and most expensive granite in the world. To day granite is commonly use as a building material
to make roads, pavements, public building and bridges so granite is most important stone in the
world.

• Marble.
Marble is a type of metamorphosed limestone rock. It is composed of calcium and magnesium
carbonate. Marbles create from limestone and dolomite formed by exposure to high
temperatures and pressures. Marbles can be found all over the world but the countries where it
most prevalent are Italy, Spain, India and China. Marble is usually getting variety colors and
have different qualities. This natural stone is suitable for areas with hot climate. It is use for
buildings, monuments and interior decorations.

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 • Quartzite.
The term "quartzite" denotes not only a high level of hardening (induration), or "welding," but
also a high content of quartz. Conversely, impure quartzites are similar rocks that are more
properly referred to as graywacke, lithic arenite, sandstone, or other similar names. The
majority of quartzites have 90 percent or more quartz, but some have 99 percent, making them
the largest and purest sources of silica in the crust of the Earth. For metallurgical uses and the
production of silica brick, pure quartzites provide a source of silica. Paving blocks, riprap, road
metal (crushed stone), railroad ballast, and roofing granules are further products made from
quartzite that are mined. Quartzite is durability and its hard natural stone, and it will not easily
damage, and it is UV resistant, so it colors not fade when exposed to natural and artificial
lighting. It easy to maintain.

• Basalt.
Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock made primarily of the mineral’s plagioclase
and pyroxene. It typically manifests itself as an extrusive rock, like a lava flow, but it can also
take the shape of a tiny intrusive body, like an igneous dike or a thin sill. Its structure is
comparable to gabbro's. Basalt and gabbro differ from one another because basalt is a fine-
grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock. Numerous things are made from basalt.
Crushed materials are most frequently used as aggregate in construction projects. Road base,
concrete aggregate, asphalt pavement aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone in drain fields,
and other uses all need for crushed basalt. Dimensional stone is also carved out of basalt. For
the purpose of making floor tiles, building veneer, monuments, and other stone artifacts, thin
slabs of basalt are cut and occasionally polished.

• Limestone.
Limestone (calcium carbonate CaCO3) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the
main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the mineral’s calcite and aragonite,
which are different crystal forms of CaCO3. Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate
out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and
nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as the accumulation of corals and
shells in the sea, have likely been more important for the last 540 million years. Limestone
often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and
on the evolution of life. Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as
continental shelves or platforms, though smaller amounts were formed in many other
environments. Much dolomite is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of
limestone.

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 • Onyx.
Onyx primarily refers to the parallel banded variety of chalcedony, a silicate mineral. Agate and
onyx are both varieties of layered chalcedony that differ only in the form of the bands: agate
has curved bands and onyx has parallel bands. The colors of its bands range from black to
almost every color. Commonly, specimens of onyx contain bands of black and/or white. Onyx,
as a descriptive term, has also been applied to parallel banded varieties of alabaster, marble,
calcite, obsidian and opal, and misleadingly to materials with contorted banding, such as "Cave
Onyx" and "Mexican Onyx".

• Slate
-Slate is a type of metamorphic rock. They are made of the mineral’s quartz, mica, and clay.
Slate is mainly made of quartz and either muscovite or elite, but it can also contain small
amounts of biotite, chlorite, hematite, and pyrite. Apatite, graphite, kaolin, magnetite,
tourmaline, and zircon can also be components, though less frequently. Fine-grained structure
can be found. They simply separate along the original bedding's planes. Dark gray, greenish
gray, purple, gray, and black are some of the color options. The density ranges from 2.6 to 2.7.
The range of compressive strength is 100 to 200 N/mm2. They are employed as pavement,
slabs, roofing tiles, etc. Slate comes in a variety of hues through nature. Black, gray, blue-gray,
and speckled forms are the most prevalent. the presence of iron compounds.

• Sandstone
Since these rocks are sedimentary, they are stratified. Most of the stone is made up of quartz
clasts, which are sand-sized grains that have been silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxide
bonded to them. They are made of feldspar and quartz. They come in a variety of colors,
including white, gray, red, buff, brown, yellow, and even dark gray. The compressive strength
ranges from 20 to 170 N/mm2, and the specific gravity ranges from 1.85 to 2.7. It has a porosity
range of 5% to 25%. Rocks become unusable as building stone due to weathering. If necessary,
it is preferable to utilize silica cement and sand stones for heavy buildings. For masonry work,
dams, bridge piers, and river walls, they are employed. The number of sandstones available on
the market varies.

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 ➢ Applications of different stones.
• In Hydraulic structures.
It built with regular or irregular shape of neutral stones from igneous, metamorphic or
sedimentary stones. Stones should not have interlayers and visible layers and cracks in
weathered or soft rock or porous shells.
•In underground structures and bridges.
Underground structures and bridges are mainly made of slabs and stones from igneous and
sedimentary stones. The tunnels and above-water elements are constructed of granite, diorite,
gabbro and basalt with a compressive strength of not less than 50 MPa. Face stone for tunnels
and face slabs are given stock face, grooved or fluted finish.
•In road construction items.
Curb stones are intended to separate roads from sidewalks, and sidewalks are used for
sidewalks. Cobbles are used to reinforce the slopes of earthworks and the banks of water
basins. Crushed stone is used for road construction.
•In facing and architectural items.
Facing slabs and stones, steps and landings, parapets etc., are made of semi-finished blocks
sawn or split from glazed, dark, ground, sawn, pointed, fluted or stone finished slabs. Facing
slabs such as granite, basalt, marble, breccia, limestone, sandstone and volcanic tuff are
commonly used.
•In foundation and walls.
Quarried, rock-cut and sawn stones are used to construct the substructure of buildings. The
pieces are separated by saws and limestone, sandstone, dolomite and volcanic tuff are used for
walls, pillars, etc.
•in building items.
Elements of stairs, landings, parapets and guard rails are manufactured from granite, marble,
limestone, tuff etc. Paving slabs and stones for farmhouse gates, cornices and windowsill slabs
are made of the same material as the facing slabs.

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 ➢ Installation.
• Put in Metal Lath and Apply Vapor Barrier
Most veneer products for wood-framed homes instruct users to first construct a vapor barrier
against the sheathing. The basic house wrap, such Tyvek, that is utilized under lap siding can be
employed here. A sheathing paper, such as grade D asphalt builder's paper, is another option.
Follow the recommendations of the veneer manufacturer if a vapor barrier is not
recommended for concrete block or poured concrete walls.
Install enlarged, galvanized metal lath sheets after that so that mortar may be laid down
underneath the veneer. Roofing nails should be driven into studs spaced about 6 inches apart in
order to attach this lath; make sure the nails go all the way through the studs. In addition,
fasten the sheathing to the sheathing between studs with approximately 6-inch-spaced nails.

• Use Scratch Coat.

Create a type N or type S mortar scratch coat. A suitable mortar mix typically comprises of 1.25
parts sand and 1.25 parts N or S cement, while premixed scratch-coat mortar is also readily
available. The bond coat and the seams can be grouted with the same mortar that was used for
the scratch coat.
Using a trowel, apply the mixture in a layer that is 1/2 to 3/4 inch thick to the whole lath
surface.
Depending on the plan, you might wish to tint the coat since it occasionally shows up after the
stained veneer is put in place.
Apply a metal scraper or metal comb on this scratch coat to create horizontal grooves. Giving
the mortar is the objective.

• Prepare the Stones and the Area

After thoroughly cleaning each stone, evaluate the layout by setting the pieces out on a flat
surface. To ensure a random assortment of colors and shapes, it is a good idea to mix several
boxes of veneer pieces together. You can arrange the entire wall part if you have the room. If
not, divide them into little pieces and apply them gradually.
When trimming is required, a wet saw, a circular saw fitted with a masonry blade, or a chisel
and maul might be used. Remember that grout will be used to conceal trimmed edges later, but
it is a good idea to place cut edges where they won't be in plain view.

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• Make the mortar mixture.
Make the mortar mixture needed to attach the veneer. When starting from scratch, add 1.25
parts type N or S cement and 2.25 parts water. Mix vigorously until a thick paste like
consistency is achieved. Make sure the mixture contains just the right amount of water to make
it workable but not too much that the mortar drops off the lath and falls off the trowel.
• Use Mortar
Apply mortar in a "butter" layer that is 1/2 inch thick to both the scratch coat and the back of
the veneer piece using a trowel. The mortar should have a paste-like consistency that is both
moist enough to prevent drying out and stiff enough to allow for the adjustment and leveling of
the stone as it is applied.
Work on small sections of the wall at a time to prevent the mortar from setting up before you
can apply the veneer. The ideal approach is to start at the bottom-most wall corners and work
your way up and outward.
• Use the stone veneer components.
The veneer pieces that wrap around corners should be installed first. Start at the bottom, then
move up. The stone should be pressed firmly into the mortar and held there for 10 seconds. To
extract the mortar, gently rotate the stone while applying downward pressure. Around the
stone's edges, some mortar ought to have gathered. When you release the stone, if it slides or
slips, it is probably because the mortar layer is too thin, or the mortar was combined with too
much water.
Once the corner pieces are in place, install the flat pieces by starting at the bottom and working
your way up. Saw-trimmed edges should be properly positioned so that they are not readily
visible.
• Joint Grouting
The grout mixture for stone veneer joints should now be applied; it can be the same mortar
mixture used for the scratch coat and bonding mortar. The best equipment for this job is a
grout bag, a canvas bag with a metal nozzle on one side.
Squeeze the bag while sliding the nozzle along the joint after adding mortar to it. Make sure the
mortar is applied to all the clipped edges and ends. Joint depth should be constant; the grout
can be slightly recessed or can completely fill the joints, but make sure to maintain the depth.
Use a pointed tool to pack the mortar into the joints and fill in any gaps as the mortar mixture
begins to dry.

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• Wash and Seal
To remove any extra dirt or mortar residue from the veneer's face, use a steel wire brush and a
solution of vinegar and water.
Stone veneer needs to be cleaned right away so that the mortar can't fully dry on the face.
As directed by the manufacturer, seal the veneer stone. Re-seal the veneer every other year or
as directed by the manufacturer. Compared to unsealed stone, sealed stone may be easier to
clean, and some sealers also repel stains.

➢ New Developments.

➢ Granite
•Textured finishes: A textured finish can give a more modern and unique look to the granite
surface. This is achieved by using various techniques such as sandblasting, brushing, and
honing.
•Antique Finish: An antique finish is a popular trend that gives granite a vintage look and is
achieved by applying a chemical process that gives the surface an aged appearance.
•Leathered Finish: A leathered finish gives the granite surface a softer and more natural look.
This finish is achieved by lightly sanding the surface and gives a unique texture and matte
appearance.
•Waterjet Cut Designs: With advancements in technology, intricate designs can now be cut into
granite surfaces using waterjet cutting. This allows for customization of countertops and other
surfaces with unique. patterns and shapes.
•Color - Enhanced Finishes.

➢ Marble
•Textured finishes: Marble surfaces can now be textured to add visual interest and provide a
unique look.
•Polished concrete finishes: A popular trend in interior design is to use concrete with a polished
finish to achieve a modern, industrial look.

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•Honed finishes: Honed finishes are becoming more popular as they provide a matte, satin-like
finish that is less slippery and easier to maintain than a polished finish.
•Inlay finishes: Inlay finishes involve embedding patterns or designs into the surface of the
marble.

➢ Quartzite
•Improved durability

•Enhanced color options

•Textured finishes
•Eco-friendly options
•Digital printing

➢ Basalt

•Increased use in construction and architecture

•Improved manufacturing techniques

•Sustainable sourcing
•Innovative surface treatment

➢ Slate
•Textured finishes

•Colored finishes
•Waterproofing
•Durable finishes

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 ➢ Cost
1) Granite - Indian = Rs. 2500/=
= Rs. 4500/=

= Rs. 3800/=

2) Marble - = Rs. 7800/=

= Rs. 15700/=

= Rs. 42500/=

= Rs. 37000/=

3) Quartzite - = Rs. 3250/=

= Rs. 2250/=

4) Basalt - $ 10 / $ 140 / $ 20

$ 86 / $ 235

5) limestone - $ 28.50 / $ 38.50 / $ 48.25

LKR 500/ 800 /1500 / 2300/ 2500

6) Slate - LKR 828 / 672 /

LKR 1344

7) Stand stone - LKR 403 / 313 /291

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 ➢ Market Name
1) Granite - Alaskan white.
Amazon Gold.
Antique Yellow.
Azul Bahia.
Azurite orbs in granite.
Baltic red.
2) Marble - Carrara marble.
Pink marble.
Brown albite marble.
Bianco Carrara.
Dogri marble.
Kumari marble.
Calcutta.
3)Quartzite - Alice white quartzite.
Arctic sky quartzite.
Azul macambas quartzite.
Blanco shadow quartzite.
Blue lagoon quartzite.
Canyon down quartzite.
Fantasy brown.
4) Basalt - Black polished basalt stone.
Basalt stone rectangular.
Matte natural basalt.
Basalt stone flamed finish.
White basalt rock.

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5) Limestone – Travertine.
Fossiliferous limestone.
Coquina.
Tufa.
Shelly limestone.
Indiana limestone.
6) Onyx - White onyx marble.
Black onyx marble.
Blue onyx marble.
Brown onyx marble.
Red onyx marble.
7) Slate - Black slate.
Slate stone slabs.
Red slate stones.
Copper slate.
Marble slate.
Lime pink slate.
8) Stand stone -Greywacke.
Arkose.
Amethyst.
Teak wood sandstone.

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 ➢ Advantages and disadvantages.
Stone has been used as a building material for centuries because of its durability and natural
beauty. One of the main advantages of stone is its longevity. Stones such as granite, marble and
quartz are suitable for outdoor construction and decoration as they are resistant to weather,
rot and fire. This means they will stand the test of time and look great for years to come.
Additionally, stone offers unique patterns and colors that can add aesthetic appeal to any
structure, making it a popular choice for interior design and landscaping projects. Another
advantage of stone is its environmental friendliness. As a natural resource, stone does not
require special treatments or chemicals, making it an environmentally friendly option for
construction and design projects. This reduces its environmental impact and seeks to make a
more sustainable choice. It can be an important selling point for people.
However, stone also has several notable drawbacks. One of the main drawbacks is cost. Stone is
expensive to transport and can be prohibitive for some construction projects, making it an
inaccessible option for some. It is labor intensive and thus more time consuming and difficult to
achieve than other building materials. This can increase the overall cost of the project and make
it difficult to execute.
Stone weight is another drawback. Stones become heavy and difficult to transport and handle.
This can make it more difficult to move rocks from one location to another and can also make
installation more difficult as handling heavy rocks requires special equipment and labor. There
is a nature.
Finally, stones may require maintenance over time. Stones such as marble and granite may
require regular cleaning and sealing to maintain their appearance and durability. This can be a
time consuming and costly process and can add additional costs to the overall cost of the
project.
In summary, stone has many advantages such as durability, aesthetics, and environmental
friendliness, but also disadvantages such as cost, complex installation, weight and maintenance
requirements. Before deciding to use stone in a construction or design project, it is important
to carefully consider the pros and cons to determine if it is the right choice for your needs and
budget.

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 ➢ Special detail
• Design with Natural Stone Colors
You can now reference our natural stone products according to the six main color tones (fiery,
earth, honey, shadow, sky, and arctic) to find or create the perfect blend of real stone color
tones.
*Fiery Stone Colors
Fiery natural stone colors are warm, energetic, and expressive. Red is high impact and inspiring.
The hues in this spectrum are perfect for promoting conversation and interaction.
*Earth Stone Colors
Earth natural stone colors include everything from neutral buffs and tans to classic rich browns.
The hues in this spectrum are classically versatile, having the ability to pair with many other
colors and materials. Warm, light neutrals are soothing and inviting, while rich dark browns add
a sense of drama.
*Sky Stone Colors
Blue is by far the most popular hue when talking about interior and exterior color families. Our
sky natural stone colors are no exception. This sky-blue stone color tone is a version of blue
with added white, which means it’s a lighter version of sky stone colors for a breezy, cool,
calming effect. Sky stone colors can also be energetic when brighter, more saturated real stone
color tones are used and contrasted with white or yellow.

➢ Conclusion.
There are so many specialties in stones. So, stones are a very special material for the building
construction.

➢ References.
https://theconstructor.org/building/stones-building-constructions/36144/?amp=1

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite

https://www.britannica.com/science/marble-rock

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