MEMORY AND FORGETTING

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Brain storming Question

 What comes to your mind about memory?

 What is the function of memory in your studying?

Meaning and Processes of Memory

 Memory is the retention of information/what is learned over
time.
 It is the way in which we record the past for later use in the
present. Memory is a bridge between our past and our present.
 Simply memory is remembering previously learned experience.
3 Process of memory
Encoding- It is the process by which
information is initially recorded in a form
usable to memory. In encoding we
transform a sensory input into a form or a
memory code that can be further
processed.

Storage- placing information. It is the

location in memory system in which
material is saved. Storage is the
persistence of information in memory.

Retreival- is the point at which one tries

to remember to dredge up a particular
memory trace from among all the others
we have stored. In retrieval, material in
memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used.
 Structure of Memory
Memory structure is the nature of memory storage itself
We have 3 structures of memory
I. Sensory registrar memory: It is the first information storage
area..
 Accurate representation of the environmental information and
gives us a brief time to decide whether the information is
important it extraneous.
 Capacity of sensory memory is very large, and Stores information
for a brief time.
 For instance, visual images (Iconic memory) - one second.
 Auditory information (Echoic memory) -up to two second or so.
 Attention/recognition are important in SRM
 Structure of Memory contn’d
ii. Short-term memory (STM): It is a part of memory that holds
contents of our attention. Unlike sensory memories, short-term
memories are not brief replicas of the environmental message.
 We can call it working… STM is important for a variety of tasks
such as thinking, reading, speaking and problem solving.
 It is active, Rapid accessibility(the difference between pulling a
file from the top of a desk versus searching for it in a file drawer),
Preserves the temporal sequence of information and Limited
capacity
 The duration - up to30 seconds, and the capacity of STM is 7+/-
2.
 Chunking and rehearsal to increase the capacity and existence
time of STM respectively.
 Structure of Memory contn’d

iii. Long- term memory (LTM):-It is a memory system used for

relatively permanent storage of meaningful information. The capacity
of LTM also has no practical limits. LTM stores information for indefinite
periods.
 LTM has two categories. These are:
A, Declarative/Explicit/ Memory - that can be verbally
communicated. It is divided in to two:
i, Semantic Memory - stores factual knowledge like the meaning of
words, E .g. psychology studies…
ii, Episodic Memory- memories of events and situations from
personal experience
B, Non-declarative/Implicit Memory: - they are shown in
actions/behaviors/. Example, procedural memory. This memory is a
memory of “how to do things”
 Serial Position Effect
 If you are shown a list of items and are then asked
immediately to recall them, your retention of any particular
item will depend on its position in the list. Recalling the
beginning of the list (the primacy effect) because short-term
memory was relatively empty when they entered, and recalling
the end of the list (the recency effect) they are still sitting in
STM.
 U-shaped curve.
 Factors Affecting Memory
Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans are as follows:
a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by past
experiences.
b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a
person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.
e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull person,
g. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.
h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better memory.
i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,
j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in our memory for longer
period than for nonsense material,
k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections in the
brain and helps for clear memory.
Forgetting
 Forgetting
 It is the apparent loss of information already stored and encoded in
memory. The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). The most rapid
forgetting occurs in the first hours, and particularly in the first hour.
Theories of Forgetting: - Psychologists have proposed five theories of
forgetting.
1. Decay Theory. Forgetting because of disuse and the passage of time.
2. Interference Theory. Forgetting because similar items of information
interfere on another in either storage or retrieval. There are two kinds of
interference.
In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes with
recall of newer material. If new information interferes with the ability to
remember old information the interference is called Retroactive
Interference.
2. Interference Theory.
3. New Memory for Old/Displacement/Theory: forgetting
because of new information entering in the memory can wipe out old
information
4. Motivated Forgetting Theory: people forget because they are
motivated to forget. Threatening or painful to live with, this is for the
purpose of self-protective process.
5. Cue Dependent Forgetting: When we lack retrieval cues. Cues
that were present when you learned a new fact or had an experience
are apt to be especially useful later as retrieval aids. These cues are
elements that were present at the time that the actual memory was
encoded.
 Strategy for Improving Memory
A better approach/mental strategies/ that we follow to improve
our memory are:
 Paying attention
 Encode information in more than one way
 Add meaning
 Take your time
 Over learn
 Monitor your learning
 Decay LTM STM Retrieva Chunkin Rehearsal Encodin SRM
Theory l g g
Interference Storage
T.
1. ------- is the grouping or packing of information into higher order units that can be
remembered as single units.
2. It is possible to prolong or increase existence time of STM by -------.
3. ------- is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to
memory.
4. The process by which material is brought into awareness and used is referred to as
-------.
5. ------- stores fairly accurate representation of the environmental information but
unprocessed
6. ------- holds information that are contents of our attention.
7. ------- is a memory system used for the relatively permanent storage of meaningful
information.
8. According to ------- forgetting occurs due to passage of time if information are not
accessed now and then
Motivation and Emotion
 Definition of motivation
Motivation is a factor by which activities are started, directed and continued so that
physical or psychological needs or wants are met. The word itself comes from the
Latin word Mover, which means to move. Motivation is what ―moves people to do
the things they do. For example, when a person is relaxing in front of a television and
begins to feel hungry, the physical need for food may cause the person to get up, go
into the kitchen, and search for something to eat.
18  Running for reward
Types of Motivation  Studying to score A
 Reading for enjoyment
 Rock climbing to win first
Intrinsic Motivation
prize
A person acts because the
act itself is rewarding or  Graduating with awards
satisfying in some
internal manner.

Extrinsic motivation
Individuals act because the
action leads to an outcome
that is external to a
person.
 Theories of motivation
A) Instinct approaches to motivation
 Focused on the biologically determined and innate patterns of both humans
and animals behavior.
 Just as animals are governed by their instincts to do things such as migrating,
nest building, mating ………., early researchers proposed that human beings
may also be governed by similar instincts. According to this instinct theory, in
humans, the instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behavior, …….
 Some human behavior is controlled by hereditary factors.
B) Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
 This approach involved the concepts of needs and drives.

Need - A requirement of some material (food or water) that is essential for the survival of
the organism.
Drive -A psychological tension and physical arousal to fulfill the need and reduce the
tension due to the needs.
 There are two types of drives - Primary drives and Acquired (secondary) drives
 This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis-When there is a primary drive

need, the body is in a state of imbalance.

 Increased hunger Eat Raised glucose

 Lowered glucose Don’t eat Diminished hunger

c) Arousal approaches: beyond drive reduction
 Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement.
 Each person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity.

D) Incentive approaches: motivations pull

Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation stems from the desire to
attain external rewards, known as incentives. In this view, the desirable properties of
external stimuli: whether grades, money, affection, ….account for a person‘s motivation.
E) Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind motivation
Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is a result of people‘s
thoughts………. For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for a
test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good
grade. Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.
F) Humanistic Approaches to
Motivation- Maslow suggested that
human behavior is influenced by a
hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes
of needs, or motives. He said that
needs at the lowest level of the
hierarchy must be at least partially
satisfied before people can be
motivated by the ones at higher levels.
Maslow‘s five Hierarchies of needs for
motives from the bottom to the top are
as follows:
Detail explanation for each:
1. Physiological needs: also called fundamental needs
 Are biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life
 These are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter,
clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs:

 Is the urge to belong and to give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem

 It the needs of protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear

 Is the need to belong and to give and receive love, and the need to acquire esteem through
competence and achievement
3. Love and belongingness needs: social needs
 Involves feelings of belongingness
 It includes friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and
love.
 Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work)
4. Esteem needs
 Is the need to be respected as a useful, honorable individual; which
 Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories:
 esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence)
 the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige)= needs to be
respected by others
5. Self-actualization needs

 Are at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy

 the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s
unique potential

 Is the needs of realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences

 A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”

5.1.3. Conflict of motives and frustration
 Difficulty choosing among the motives which creates more internal conflict and indecision.
Approach-approach conflicts
 We must choose only one of the two desirable activities. Example: going to a movie or a concert.
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
 Selecting one of two undesirable alternatives. Example: Someone forced either to sell the family
home or to declare bankruptcy.
Approach-avoidance conflicts
 A particular event or activity has both attractive and unattractive features. Example: You may
want to go to the dentist but may fear the pain of the drill
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
 Exist when two or more alternatives each have both positive and negative features. . Example:
Suppose you must choose between two jobs. One offers a high salary with a well-known company
but requires long working hours and relocation to a miserable climate. The other contain
advancement opportunities, fringe benefits, and a better climate, but it doesn‘t pay as much and
involves an unpredictable work schedule.
5.2. Emotions
5.2.1. Definition of emotion
 Feeling aspect of consciousness.
 Characterized by certain physical arousal and behavior that reveals the feeling to the
outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. happiness, surprise, fear, sadness,
anger, disgust.
 Elements of emotion
The physiology of emotion
 Increases in heart rate, rapid breathing, and the mouth may become dry.
The behavior of emotion
 Facial expressions, body movements, and actions that indicate to others how a person feels.
 Facial expressions can vary across different cultures, although some aspects of facial
expression seem to be universal.
Subjective experience or labeling emotion
 Interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness,
shame, interest, surprise and so on.
 Physiological arousal:
James-Lange Stimulus increased heart rate Emotion:
snake fear
theory

Physiological arousal:
increased heart rate

Cannon-bard Stimulus
snake
theory Emotion:
fear

Physiological arousal:
increased heart rate

Schechter- Stimulus Emotion

fear
singer theory Cognitive interpretation
“I feel afraid!”
1. If a person does not eat for a period of time, it causes a need for food. This need produces a state of tension. The tension
energizes the person to act in some way to find food, thereby returning the body to homeostasis. This is an example of:
30
(A) Intrinsic action pattern (B) Secondary drives (C) Emotion (D) Drive reduction
theory
2. Unlearned biological motives necessary for survival are termed
A. Primary drives. B. Secondary drives. C. homeostasis. D. Stimulus
motives
3. Which theory of emotion holds the view that bodily changes PRECEDE emotion and that we experience an emotion
AFTER our body reacts?
A. Schatcher-Singer theory B. The Cannon-Bard theory C. The James-Lange theory
4. What is the correct order of needs from bottom to top in Maslow's hierarchy?
A. Physiological; esteem; safety; self-actualization; love and belonging B. Self-actualization; physiological;
safety; love and belonging; esteem
C. Physiological; safety; love and belonging; esteem; self-actualization D. Self-actualization; safety; love and
belonging; esteem; physiological
5. In cognitive approach, motivation is a result of:
A. Maintaining Equilibrium B. Reducing psychological tension
C. People’s belief system D. Pull factors of Stimuli
31 1.Physiological arousal and psychological A. Arousal theory
tension motivate people
2. A need for an optimal level of B. drive reduction theory
excitement motivates behavior
3. External stimulus motivates people C. Cognitive theory
4. People are evolutionary programmed to D. Humanistic theory
be motivated
5. A persons thought, feeling and belief E. Incentive theory
motivates them
F. Instinct theory
PERSONALITY
 PERSONALITY
 Learning Appetizer

“One of the greatest regrets in life is being what others would want
you to be, rather than being yourself”. Shannon L. Alder

What makes an individual different from others?

Meaning of personality
The word personality is derived from the word ‘persona’, which has Greek and
Latin roots and refers to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors.
Personality is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions that
characterize a person.
 Theories of personality
Personality is an area of the still relatively young fields of
psychology in which there are several ways in which the
characteristic behavior of human beings can be explained.
Some of the theories of personality are: psychoanalytic, trait,
and humanistic.

1. The psychoanalytic theory of personality

 According to the psychoanalytic theory of Freud, Personality is
formed within ourselves, arising from basic inborn needs, drives,
….. He argued that people are in constant conflict between their
biological urges (drives) and the need to tame them.
 In Freud's view personality has three parts: the id, the ego, and
the superego
 •Id(it): If It Feels Good, Do • Ego(I): The Executive • Superego(“over the
It--The first and most Director- According self”) : The Moral
primitive part of the to Freud, to deal with Watchdog-
personality in the infant is reality, the second • The superego develops as
the id. part of personality a preschool-aged child
•Guided by pleasure develops called the learns the rules, customs,
principle ego. and expectations of
•The id is unconscious, • The ego, is mostly society.
amoral, exists at birth, conscious and is far • Superego: constrains us
containing all of the basic more rational, logical from gratifying every
biological drives; hunger, and cunning than impulse (e.g., murder)
thirst, sex, aggression. the id. because they are immoral.
•When these drives are • The ego works on • There are two parts to the
active, there is physical and the reality principle, superego: the ego ideal
which is the need to and the conscience.
psychological tension that
satisfy the demands • The ego-ideal is a kind of
Freud called libido- of the id and reduce
instinctual energy When measuring device e.g.
libido only in ways acceptable behavior.
libidinal energy is high, it is that will not lead to • The conscience - makes
unpleasant for the person, negative people pride when they do
so the goal is to reduce consequences. the right thing and guilt, or
libido by fulfilling the drive:- • Ego’s strength is moral anxiety when they
Eat when hungry, drink important do the wrong thing.
when thirsty, and satisfy the
sex when the need for
pleasure is present.
 Here’s a hypothetical example:

If a 6-month-old child sees an object and wants it, she will reach out and grab it
despite her parent’s frantic cries of “No, no!” The parent will have to pry the object out
of the baby’s hands, with the baby protesting mightily all the while. But if the same
child is about 2 years old, when she reaches for the object and the parent shouts “No!”
she will most likely draw back her hand without grabbing the object because her ego
has already begun to develop. In the first case, the infant has only the id to guide her
behavior, and the id wants to grab the object and doesn’t care what the parent says or
does. But the 2 years old has an ego and that ego knows that the parent’s “No!” may
very well be followed by punishment, an unpleasant consequence. The 2 years old
child will make a more rational, more logical decision to wait until the parent isn’t
looking and then grab the object and run. A simpler way of stating the reality principle
is “if it feels good, do it, but only if you can get away with it.”
 For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual
battle for dominance among the 3 structures. This constant
conflict between them is resolved by psychological defense
mechanisms.
Defense Mechanisms
Ego Id
When the inner war
gets out of hand, the
result is Anxiety

Ego protects itself via

Defense Mechanisms
Super
Ego
 Some examples of defense mechanisms
 Repression - banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious
mind. Example: an Ethiopian husband who is defeated by his wife will not remember/ talk it out
again.
 Denial: is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation. Example; Mr. Ben is an
alcoholic who denies/ doesn’t accept being an alcoholic.
 Regression: involves reverting to immature behaviors that have relieved anxiety in the past.
Example: a woman cries every time when she is insulted.
 Rationalization: giving socially acceptable reasons for one's inappropriate behavior. Example:
make bad grades but states the reason as being knowledge rather than grade oriented
 Displacement: expressing feelings toward a person who is less threatening than the person
who is the true target of those feelings. Example: Hating your boss but taking it out on family
members.
 Projection: the defense mechanism that involves attributing one's undesirable feelings to
other people. Example: a person who desires to have extra marriage accuses his wife flirting
with other men.
 Reaction formation: a tendency to act in a manner opposite of one's true feelings. Example:
a woman supports abortion holds anti-abortion stand.
 Sublimation: expressing sexual or aggressive behavior through indirect, socially acceptable
outlets. Example: an aggressive person who plays football.
  The trait theory of personality
The trait approach to personality makes three main assumptions:
 Relative stability, and predictability over time.
 Personality traits are relatively stable across situations.
 Differences in a particular personality trait they possess; no two people are
exactly alike on all traits.
  The Five Factor Trait N Tick one answer for each
low.

A.
Strongly D.(1)
o. statement using the scale

Disagree(2)

Neutral(3)
Theory

Agree(4)
Strongly
that clearly indicates your
To remember use the acronym OCEAN, personality at the front of
 Openness- trying new things and be the page.
open to new experiences or maintain 1 I get upset easily-N
the status quo and who don’t like to
change things. 2 I enjoy being part of a
group- E
 Conscientiousness- careful about
3 I like to solve complex
being places on time and careful with
belongings as well. Being late or borrow problems-O
belongings and fail to return them 4 I am always prepared-C
 Extraversion- outgoing and sociable or 5 I get irritated easily-N
solitary and dislike being the center of 6 I love to help others-A
attention.
 Agreeableness- easygoing, friendly 7 I enjoy time alone-E
and pleasant or grumpy, crabby and 8 I have high standards-C
hard to get along with others
9 I am concerned about
 Neuroticism- excessive worriers, others -A
overanxious and moody or more even-
1 I am open to different
Humanistic theory of personality
Humanistic theory of personality
 Not pessimistic rather optimistic(inherent goodness) and
emphasize people’s tendency to move toward higher levels of
functioning, and do not believe behavior is controlled by
environment, the unconscious, and a set of stable traits (trait
approaches).
 Humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow wanted
psychology to focus on the things that make people uniquely
human, such as subjective emotions and the freedom to choose
one‘s destiny.
 A. Carl Rogers and Self-concept
 Human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate capacities and
to become everything that their genetic potential will allow them to
become (self-actualizing tendency).
 An important tool in human self-actualization is the development of
an image of oneself or the self-concept and unconditional
positive regard.
 Rogers believed that when the real self and the ideal self are very
close or similar to each other, people feel competent and capable,
but when there is a mismatch between the real and ideal selves,
anxiety and neurotic behavior can be the result.
 Self-actualizationand to be fully functioning‘ are highly related
concepts, but there are some subtle differences. Self-actualization is
a goal that people are always striving to reach, according to Maslow
(1987). In Rogers's view, only a person who is fully functioning is
capable of reaching the goal of self-actualization.
 Here is an example: as a freshman Tirhas was thinking about
becoming a math teacher, a computer programmer. Chaltu, also a
freshman, already knew that she was going to be a doctor. While
Tirhas‟ parents had told her that what she wanted to become was
up to her and that they would love her no matter what. Chaltu‟s
parents had made it very clear to her as a small child that they
expected her to become a doctor. She was under the very
impression that if she tried to choose any other career, she will
lose her parents‟ love and respect. Tirhas‟ parents were giving her
unconditional positive regard, but Chaltu‟s parents were giving her
conditional positive regard. Chaltu was not as free as Tirhas to
explore potential abilities.
1. In Carl Rogers theory of personality, when the real self and the ideal self are very close to each other, people feel
competent and capable
2. People who are excessively worried, overanxious, and moody would score high on the openness dimension
3. Psychoanalytic theory of personality believes that problems occur when a person‘s view of self is distorted.
4. Which one of the following structures of personality is the moral center of personality?
A. Id B. Ego C. Superego D. None
5. The concept of individuals “Ideal Self”; as Carl Rogers is all about___

A. Who they currently are C. Who they were as a child

B. Who they want to become D. Who others see them as
6. Suppose that Mr. Eshetu is unable to control his emotion and, get upset and irritated easily. Then, which of the
following trait dimension describes Mr. Eshetu’s personality?
A. Openness C. Neuroticism
B. Conscientiousness D. Agreeableness
7. From Sigmund Freud’s three structure of human personality which one works on the reality principle?
A. Id B. Ego C. Superego D. All
8. Which one of the following part of human personality develops when the child learns the rules, customs, and
expectations of society
A. Id B. Ego C. Superego D. All
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT
TECHNIQUES
 Mental illness, also called mental health disorders, refers to a wide range of
mental health disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior and,
characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychopathology is
the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology and
treatment.
 For example, if you ask a classmate for a date and you are rejected, you probably
would feel a little dejected. Such feelings would be normal. If you felt extremely
depressed—so much so that you lost interest in activities, had difficulty eating or
sleeping, felt worthless, and contemplated suicide—your feelings would
be atypical,
We generally have three main criteria: abnormality
maladaptiveness, and personal distress.
1. Abnormality
When someone behaves in culturally unacceptable
ways and the behaviors he/she exhibit violates the
norm, standards, rules and regulations of the
society……
2. Maladaptiveness- Maladaptive behavior in one
way or another creates a social, personal and
occupational problem on those who exhibit the
behaviors.
3. Personal Distress
Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension
and other unpleasant emotions determine whether
we have a psychological disorder.
Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)
i. The Biological Perspective
Because of abnormalities in the working of chemicals in the brain, called
neurotransmitters
ii. Psychological Perspectives
A. Psychoanalytic perspective
Abnormal behavior, in Freud’s view, is caused by the ego’s inability to manage the
conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the superego.
B. Learning perspective- disorders arise from inadequate or inappropriate learning.
C. Cognitive perspective-People's ways of thinking, self-defeating thoughts…
 Mood Disorders
Serious change in mood from depressed to elevated
feelings causing disruption to life activities.

I.Major Depressiion II. Dysthymic IV. Cyclothymic

III. Bipolar Disorder
persistently Disorder
Disorder characterized by
depressed mood Lesser form of
A lesser, but periods of extreme
causing significant Bipolar Disorder.
more highs (called mania)
impairment in daily persistent form
life. characterized by and extreme lows as
of depression. in Major Depression.
depressed mood,
diminished interest in Type I(hypermanic)
activities previously and Type II
enjoyed, sleep (hypomanic)
disturbance…
 2) Anxiety Disorders
 Involves excessive fear or anxiety. The most common of mental
disorders and affect nearly 30 percent of adults at some point in
their lives.
 Anxiety disorders can affect Job performance, school work and
personal relationships can be affected.
Category of anxiety disorders
a) Panic Disorder - A panic attack is an inappropriate intense
feeling of fear or discomfort including many of the following
symptoms: heart palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath,
chest pain, dizziness. These symptoms are so severe that the
person may actually believe he or she is having a heart attack.
b) Agoraphobia literally means fear of the marketplace such as
shopping centers, grocery stores, or other public place.
c) Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia represent an
intense fear and often an avoidance of a specific situation, person,
place, or thing.
d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is characterized by
obsessions (thoughts which seem uncontrollable) and compulsions
(behaviors which act to reduce the obsession).
e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs only after a person
is exposed to a traumatic event where their life or someone else's life is
threatened. The most common examples are war, natural disasters,
major accidents, and severe child abuse. Then, an intense fear of
related situations, avoidance of these situations, reoccurring
nightmares, flashbacks, and heightened anxiety to the point that it
significantly disrupts their everyday life.
f) Generalized Anxiety Disorder is diagnosed when a person has
extreme anxiety in nearly every part of their life.
3) Personality Disorders
A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you
have a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and
behaving. Personality Disorders are characterized by an
enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving which is
significantly different from the person's culture and results in
negative consequences. This pattern must be longstanding
and inflexible for a diagnosis to be made.
 Types of personality disorder
1) Paranoid (includes a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness).
2) Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms and a restriction of emotions).
3) Schizotypal (pattern of discomfort in close relationships and eccentric thoughts and
behaviors).
4) Antisocial (pattern of disregard for the rights of others, including violation of these
rights and the failure to feel empathy).
5) Borderline (pattern of instability in personal relationships, including frequent bouts
of attachment and affection and anger and resentment, often cycling between these
two extremes rapidly).
6) Histrionic (pattern of excessive emotional behavior and attention seeking).
7) Narcissistic (pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated self-worth, and need for
admiration).
8) Avoidant (pattern of feelings of social inadequacies, low self-esteem, and
hypersensitivity to criticism).
9) Obsessive-Compulsive (pattern of obsessive cleanliness, perfection, and control).
Treatment Techniques
 7.4 Treatment Techniques
 Providing psychological treatment to individuals with some kind
of psychological problems is psychotherapy. Treatment of
mental illnesses can take various forms. They can include
medication, talk- therapy, a combination of both, and can last
only one session or take many years to complete.
 Core components of psychotherapy remain the same.
Psychotherapy consists of the following:
1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient and
a trained psychotherapist
2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or not
3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment
4. Working together as a team to achieve these goals.
 Treatment Approaches
 When providing psychotherapy, there are several issues to be
considered.
 First and foremost is empathy.
 Second, being non- judgmental.

 Aside from these commonalties, therapists approach clients

from slightly different angles, although the ultimate goal
remains the same: to help the client reduce negative
symptoms, gain insight into why these symptoms occurred
and work through those issues, and reduce the emergence of
the symptoms in the future.
 The three main branches include Cognitive, Behavioral, and
Dynamic.
A. Therapists who lean toward the cognitive branch will look at
dysfunctions and difficulties as arising from irrational or faulty
thinking.
 The three main branches include Cognitive, Behavioral, and
Dynamic.
B. Those who follow more behavioral models look at problems as arising from
our behaviors which we have learned.
 Example- Systematic desensitization,…
Systematic desensitization is the most successful treatment based on
classical conditioning
 Contn’d
C. The dynamic or psychodynamic camp stem more from the teaching of
Sigmund Freud and look more at issues beginning in early childhood which
then motivate us as adults at an unconscious level.
Eg. Ego analysis

 Cognitive approaches appear to work better with most types of

depression, and behavioral treatments tend to work better with
phobias.
 Most mental health professionals nowadays are more eclectic in that they
study how to treat people using different approaches. These professionals
are sometimes referred to as integrationists.
 Treatment Modalities
 Individual therapy- one-on-one relationship between a client or
patient and a therapist.
 Group Therapy - group therapy is utilized, where individuals suffering
from similar illnesses or having similar issues meet together with one
or two therapists.
 Couple or a family therapy. In this type of treatment, the issues to be
worked on are centered around the relationship, educational
component, communication problem.
Thank you