Introduction to Physical Layer

• The physical layer is the first and lowest layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, which is a conceptual framework used to describe
how data is transmitted over a network.
• The physical layer focuses on the hardware and physical means of sending and
receiving raw data (bits) over a medium, such as wires, cables, or wireless
signals.

DIGITAL AND ANALOG TRANSMISSION

A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used for carrying data from one
device or network to another.
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring data between two devices
connected over a network.
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
Digital transmission refers to the process of transferring data in the form of digital
signals – a series of binary bits (0s and 1s) – over a communication channel.
Introduction to Physical Layer

TWO FORMS OF TRANSMISSION:

1. Digital Transmission: data transmission using square
waves.
2. Analog Transmission: data transmission using all sine
waves.
A. Digital transmission refers to the process of transferring
data in the form of digital signals – a series of binary bits (0s
and 1s) – over a communication channel.
B. Analog transmission refers to the process of using an
analog signal to transfer data over a medium (e.g., copper
wire, radio waves). It can involve sending raw analog signals or
modulated versions of digital data.
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
The basic principles of digital
transmission involve:
Data Encoding: Information, whether
text, voice, or video, is converted into
binary format for transmission.
• Is a method to convert the data
into signal form because we
cannot transmit data until it is
converted into signal.
Signal Transmission: These binary
signals are then transmitted over a
communication channel, such as a wire,
fiber optic cable, or even wireless
mediums.
Digital signals use discrete values for the
transmission of binary information over a
communication medium such as a
network cable or a telecommunications
link.
• ANALOG TRANSMISSION
Analog transmission refers to
the process of using an analog
signal to transfer data over a
medium (e.g., copper wire, radio
waves). It can involve sending raw
analog signals or modulated
versions of digital data.
In traditional telephony (landlines),
the human voice is captured as a
continuous analog signal. • Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC is the process
of converting digital data (binary bits, i.e., 0s and
These signals are transmitted as 1s) into analog signals for transmission over a
electrical waveforms that directly communication medium that supports analog
represent the sound's variations in signals, such as radio waves, telephone lines, or
amplitude and frequency. satellite links.
• Analog transmission methods (e.g., AM/FM radio,
telephony) require the digital data to be
converted into a form that can be carried by
analog signals.
C. TRANSMISSION MEDIA IN COMPUTER NETWORK
• Transmission Media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver.
1. Magnetic Media is a common and oldest method to transport information from one computer to
another computer which is still being used. The information that is to be transferred is first written on
any removable ‘magnetic disk’. This magnetic disk is then removed physically and attached to the
destination computer on which data has to be transferred. The destination computer or the receiver
computer then read the data from the magnetic disk.
2. Twisted Pair Cable
• A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a
single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for
ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic
interference) and cross talk.
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It consists of twisted pairs of wires without additional
shielding.
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It incorporates additional shielding to minimize interference
and crosstalk.
Features: Twisted-pair cable offers a balance between cost, flexibility, and performance. It supports
various data rates and is suitable for short to medium-distance transmissions.
Advantages: Twisted-pair cable is inexpensive, readily available, and easy to work with. It provides
reliable transmission in environments with low to moderate levels of electromagnetic interference.
Disadvantages: Twisted-pair cable is susceptible to external interference, limiting its use in environments
with high levels of electromagnetic interference.

Applicable Example: Twisted-pair cable is commonly used in telephone networks, Ethernet networks,
and home networking applications.
Copper Ethernet Cable
• a) Straight-through cable
• Color coding for Copper Ethernet
Cable Standards • In a straight-through cable, both ends
terminate to the same standard, that is, both
ends come with the EIA/TIA 568-A standard or
both ends come with the EIA/TIA 568-B
standard.
Copper Ethernet Cable

• .
b) Crossover cable
• In the crossover cable, both ends are
terminated with a different standard,
that is, one end uses the EIA/TIA • .
568-A standard and the other end
uses the EIA/TIA 568-B standard.

The detail when creating this cable is the

following: The wire 1 at one end is
swapped with wire 3 at the other end; also,
wire 2 at one end is swapped with wire 6 at
the other end.
Uses of straight-through and crossover cable in the connection between network
devices

Here are the most used physical connections in enterprise data networks
3. Coaxial Cable
•Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor
surrounded by an insulating layer, which is
further encased in a braided or foil shield.
•This shielding provides protection against
electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cable is
well-suited for long-distance transmission and
offers high bandwidth capabilities.
•Advantages: Coaxial cable is resistant to
signal degradation and interference. It is suitable
for applications requiring high bandwidth, such
as cable television and broadband internet.
•Disadvantages: Coaxial cable is more
expensive and less flexible compared to other
types of cables. It requires specialized
connectors and additional grounding.
•Applicable Example: Coaxial cable is
commonly used in Ethernet networks, providing
reliable and high-speed connectivity for data
transmission.
4. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable utilizes thin strands of glass or plastic fibers
to transmit signals using light pulses.
It offers high bandwidth, fast data transfer rates, and is
immune to electromagnetic interference.
Fiber optic cable is known for its ability to transmit signals over
long distances without signal degradation
.
•Features: Fiber optic cable provides the highest bandwidth
and supports long-distance transmissions. It offers excellent
signal quality and is immune to EMI.
•Advantages: Fiber optic cable has a greater capacity for data
transmission, provides secure communication, and is resistant
to environmental factors. It is ideal for high-speed networks
and long-distance connections.
•Disadvantages: Fiber optic cable is expensive to install and
requires specialized equipment for termination and splicing.
•Applicable Example: Fiber optic cable is commonly used in
high-speed networks, such as Gigabit Ethernet and Fiber
Channel, where large amounts of data need to be transmitted
over long distances.
D. Wireless Transmission refers to the process of transmitting data, voice, or video
signals over the air without using physical cables. Instead, it uses electromagnetic waves,
such as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared, to establish communication between devices or
networks.

1. Radio Transmission is the process of sending data, voice, or signals through the air
using radio waves, which are a type of electromagnetic wave. It is a fundamental
method of wireless communication and is widely used in broadcasting, mobile
networks, and other wireless technologies.
Radio waves operate within the electromagnetic spectrum, typically from 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
Different frequency ranges (called bands) are used for specific purposes, such as AM/FM
radio, Wi-Fi, and cellular communication.
 How Radio Transmission Works
•Transmitter:
•Converts data (e.g., audio, video, or digital information) into a radio signal using a process called
modulation
•Antenna:
•Radiates the modulated signal as electromagnetic waves into the surrounding space.
•Propagation:
•The radio waves travel through the air and may reflect, refract, or diffract depending on environmental
factors and obstacles.
•Receiver:
•Captures the transmitted radio waves using an antenna and demodulates the signal to retrieve the
original data.
2. Microwave transmission is a form of wireless communication that uses microwaves (a
type of electromagnetic wave) to transmit data over long distances. Microwaves operate at
frequencies ranging from 1 GHz to 30 GHz, making them suitable for high-speed and high-
bandwidth communication. This technology is commonly used for point-to-point communication,
satellite communication, and cellular networks.

How it works?
• A microwave transmitter generates and amplifies the signal, converting electrical signals
(like data, voice, or video) into microwaves.
• Microwaves travel in straight lines and do not bend around obstacles. Therefore, the
transmitting and receiving antennas need a clear line of sight without physical obstructions
like buildings, hills, or trees.
• The receiver decodes the microwaves back into the original electrical signals (e.g., data or
audio).
 3. Infrared (IR) Transmission is a type of wireless communication
technology that uses infrared light waves to send data between
devices. Infrared light is a form of electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths longer than visible light but shorter than microwaves.

•How Infrared Transmission Works

• Data is converted into an infrared signal using an infrared
transmitter, typically a light-emitting diode (LED) that emits IR light.
• The IR transmitter sends out pulses of infrared light corresponding to
the binary data (0s and 1s).
• The receiver, usually a photodiode, detects the IR light pulses and
converts them back into electrical signals.
• The electrical signals are then processed and interpreted as the
original data (e.g., a file, command, or multimedia content).

Key Characteristics of Infrared Transmission

•Frequency Range: Infrared waves have frequencies between 300
GHz and 430 THz, with wavelengths from 700 nm to 1 mm.
•Short Range: Works over short distances, typically a few meters.
•Line of Sight: Requires a clear, unobstructed path between the
transmitter and receiver.
•Low Power: Consumes minimal energy, making it suitable for portable
devices.
4. Light transmission refers to the passage of light
through a material. When light interacts with a
substance, some of it may pass through the material,
depending on the material's properties and the light's
wavelength.
• When light travels through a medium such as glass
without being reflected absorbed or scattered.

Types of Light Behavior:

•Transmission: Light passes through the material.
•Absorption: Light energy is absorbed by the
material and converted to heat or other forms of
energy.
•Reflection: Light bounces off the surface of the
material.
•Scattering: Light is deflected in many directions as
it passes through a medium.
Switching
Switching in networks refers to the process of directing data packets or signals
from a source to a destination within a network. It enables communication between
devices, such as computers, servers, and routers, by efficiently managing the flow
of data.
Types of Switching in Networks
1. Circuit Switching:
•A dedicated communication path is established between the source and destination before the
data transmission start. The path remains reserved for the entire duration of the communication.
•Example: Traditional telephone networks.
•Advantages: Reliable and ensures a steady connection.
•Disadvantages: Inefficient if the connection remains idle during communication.

How it Works:
A. A connection is established.
B. Data is transmitted over the dedicated path
C. The connection is terminated after the communication ends.
2. Packet Switching
•Data is divided into small packets, each containing a destination address, and sent
independently through the network. Packets may take different paths to the
destination and are reassembled there.
How It Works:
1.Data is divided into packets.
2.Each packet is routed independently.
3.Packets are reassembled in the correct order at the destination.
Features:
•No dedicated path; network resources are shared dynamically.
•Data can travel via different routes.
•Example: Internet communication (TCP/IP).

Advantages:
•Efficient use of network resources.
•Resilient to network failures (packets can be rerouted).

Disadvantages:
Higher latency due to packet routing and reassembly.
Potential for packet loss or delay in congested networks.

Use Cases: Internet browsing, email, streaming

3. Message Switching
Entire messages are sent from one switch to another, stored temporarily at each intermediate
node (store-and-forward) until they reach their destination.
Store and Forward Mechanism
How It Works:
A message is created and sent to the first switch.
The switch stores the message until the next part of the path is free.
The message is forwarded to the next switch or destination.
.

Features:
Messages are treated as a single unit.
•Temporary storage is required at each switch.
•Example: Early email systems.

Advantages:
No need for a dedicated connection
Suitable for systems with intermittent connections

Disadvantages:
Delays due to storage and forwarding at each node.
Requires large storage at intermediate nodes.

Use Cases:Email, text messaging, some data logging systems.