RESEARCH DESIGN

 IT CONSTITUTES THE DECISIONS REGARDING WHAT,

WHERE, WHEN, HOW MUCH, BY WHAT MEANS
CONCERNING AN INQUIRY OR A RESEARCH.
 IT IS A SET OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE
RESEARCHER, TO GATHER AND ANALYZE DATA IN
CERTAIN WAYS THAT WILL CONTROL WHO AND WHAT
ARE TO BE STUDIED (BRINK). THUS, THE CHOICE OF
DESIGN IS MADE WHEN THE QUESTION IS FINALIZED.
 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 IT IS THE ARRANGEMENT OF CONDITIONS FOR
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA IN A MANNER
THAT AIMS TO COMBINE RELEVANCE TO THE
RESEARCH PURPOSE WITH ECONOMY IN PROCEDURE.
 IT IS A SCHEME OR PLAN OF ACTION FOR MEETING
THE OBJECTIVES OF A PARTICULAR STUDY.
 IT IS A BLUEPRINT FOR CONDUCTING A STUDY THAT
MAXIMIZES CONTROL OVER FACTORS THAT COULD
INTERFERE WITH THE VALIDITY OF THE FINDINGS.
THE RESEARCHER’S PLAN:
 HOW THE STUDY WILL BE CONDUCTED,
 TYPE OF DATA THAT WILL BE
COLLECTED,
 THE MEANS TO BE USED TO OBTAIN
THESE DATA (WHICH ARE DETERMINED
AFTER VARIABLES ARE IDENTIFIED AND
QUANTIFIED.)
 GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH DESIGN
 PURPOSE
TO PROVIDE A PLAN IN ANSWERING RESEARCH
QUESTIONS.
 EACH DESIGN HAS ITS OWN APPLICABILITY
DEPENDING ON THE PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES OF
THE STUDY.
 IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION
TO MINIMIZE POSSIBLE ERRORS AND MAXIMIZE
THE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF DATA.
RELIABILITY
 IT REFERS TO THE CONSISTENCY, STABILITY, OR
DEPENDABILITY OF DATA. A RESEARCH METHOD
SHOULD YIELD THE SAME RESULTS, EVEN IF
CONDUCTED TWICE OR MORE.
VALIDITY
 IT REFERS TO THE DATA THAT ARE NOT ONLY RELIABLE
BUT ALSO TRUE AND ACCURATE. IT ALSO REFERS TO
WHICH EXTENT AN INSTRUMENT CAN MEASURE WHAT
IT IS SUPPOSED TO MEASURE.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
A.FACE VALIDITY
 TELLS HOW VALID THE RESULTS SEEM BASED ON
WHAT THEY LOOK LIKE.
 IT IS CONCERNED WITH WHETHER IT SEEMS LIKE
WE MEASURE WHAT WE CLAIM.
 IT IS THE LEAST SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF VALIDITY.
B. CONTENT VALIDITY
 IT REFERS TO WHETHER OR NOT THE MEASURE USED IN
RESEARCH COVERS ALL OF THE CONTENT IN THE
UNDERLYING CONTRUCT.
 IT IS CONSIDERED A SUBJECTIVE FORM OF MEASUREMENT
BECAUSE IT RLIES ON PEOPLE’S PERCEPTION OF MEASURING
CONSTRUCTS THAT WOULD OTHERWISE BE DIFFICULTTO
MEASURE.
C. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
 REPRESENTS A COLLECTION OF BEHAVIORS THAT ARE
ASSOCIATED IN A MEANINGFUL WAY TO CREATE AN IMAGE OR
AN IDEA INVENTED FOR THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH.
D. INTERNAL VALIDITY
 REFERS TO THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE CAN ACCURATELY BE STATED TO PRODUCE THE
OBSERVED EFFECT.
E. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
 REFERS TO THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE RESULTS OF A
STUDY CAN BE GENERALIZED BEYOND THE SAMPLE.
MEANING, YOU CAN APPLY THE FINDINGS TO OTHER
PEOPLE AND SETTING.
F. STATISTICAL CONCLUSION VALIDITY
 IT IS A DETERMINATION OF WHETHER A RELATONSHIP OR
CO-VARIATION EXIST BETWEEN CAUSE AND EFFECT
VARIABLES.
 THIS TYPE OF VALIDITY REQUIRES:
1. ENSURING ADEQUATE SAMPLING PROCEDURES
2. APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TEST
3. RELIABLE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES.
 WITH THIS, THE DEGREE TO WHICH A CONCLUSION IS
CREDIBLE AND BELIEVABLE.
G. CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
 IT IS ALSO CALLED INSTRUMENTAL VALIDITY.
 IT IS A MEASURE OF THE QUALITY OF THE MEASUREMENT
METHODS USED.
 IT DEMONSTRATES THE ACCURACY OF A MEASURE BY
COMPARING IT WITH A MEASURE THAT IS ALREADY
KNOWN TO BE VALID.
 THREATS TO VALIDITY
1. HISTORY
 REFERS TO THE EVENTS THAT MAY OCCUR DURING
THE TIME FRAME OF THE STUDY WHICH ARE NOT
ACTUALLY PART OF THE STUDY.
 THEY PRODUCE EFFECTS THAT INFLUENCE THE
RESULTS OF THE STUDY, EITHER INCREASING OR
DECREASING THE EXPECTED RESULTS.
2. SELECTION
 OCCURS WHEN RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY ARE CHOSEN NOT
ONLY INDIVIDUALLY BUT AS A GROUP.
3. TESTING
 REFERS TO THE PRE-TEST GIVEN WHERE THE RESULTS WILL
IMPROVE THE
PERFORMANCE IN THE POST-TEST.
 TO AVOID THIS THREAT, A PRE-TEST MAY NOT BE NEEDED FOR
ADMINISTRATION.
 HOWEVER, IF A PRE-TEST IS GIVEN, ANOTHER MEASURE IS
RECOMMENDED TO USE AS AN ALTERNATE FORM OF INSTRUMENT.
4. INSTRUMENTATION
 IT REFERS TO UNRELIABILITY IN MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS THAT MAY RESULT TO AN
INVALID MEASUREMENT OF PERFORMANCE.
 THE CHANGE IN INSTRUMENT USED BETWEEN
THE PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST MAY RESULT IN
AN EFFECT NOT CAUSED BY AN INTRODUCED
TREATMENT.
5. MATURATION
 THIS FACTOR REFERS TO THE PHYSIOLOGIC AND PSYCHOLOGIC
CHANGES THAT MAY HAPPEN TO THE RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY
OVER A PERIOD.
PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES- RELATES TO THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROCESSES OF THE BODY, AND MAY BE USED TO DESCRIBE PHYSICAL
DISEASES OR DISORDERS.
PSYCHOLOGIC CHANGES-RELATES TO THE PROCESSES OF THE MIND, AND
MAY BE
USED TO DESCRIBE MENTAL ILLNESSES.
 IF THE TIME FRAME OF A TRAINING PROGRAM IS QUITE LONG AND
RIGID, THE PARTICIPANTS MAY EXPERIENCE SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISCOMFORT DUE TO BOREDOM, TIREDNESS, HUNGER AND THE
LIKE.
6. MORTALITY
 IT REFERS TO THE LOSS OF PARTICIPANTS
DURING THE POST-TEST STAGE OR EVEN DURING
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TIME FRAME OF
THE STUDY.
 BY THE TIME A FOLLOW-UP STUDY IS
CONDUCTED ON THE SAME GROUP, SOME
MEMBERS MAY HAVE DROPPED OUT OR MAY
REFUSE TO COOPERATE FURTHER IN THE STUDY.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

1.THE SETTING IN WHICH THE RESEARCH OCCURS.

A. LABORATORY STUDIES
 DESIGNED TO BE MORE HIGHLY CONTROLLED IN
RELATION TO BOTH THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH
THE STUDY IS CONDUCTED AND THE CONTROL
OF EXTRANEOUS AND INTERVENING VARIABLES.
B. FIELD STUDIES
 OCCUR OUTSIDE THE LABORATORY SETTING.
 THIS OCCURS IN NATURAL SETTINGS AND USE A VARIETY OF
METHODS SUCH
AS:
A. FIELD EXPERIMENTS,
B. PARTICIPANT’S OBSERVATIONS IN VILLAGE OR HOSPITAL WARDS,
C. INTERVIEWS IN THE HOME OR OFFICE,
D. QUESTIONNAIRES,
E. ANYTHING AT ALL THAT DOES NOT OCCUR IN A CONTROLLED
LABORATORY SETTING.
2. TIMING OF DATA COLLECTION
A. PROSPECTIVE OR LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
-EVENTS THAT ARE UNDERWAY/OCCURRING OR EXPECTED TO
OCCUR IN
THE FUTURE.
B. RETROSPECTIVE (COMPARATIVE), EX POST FACTO (AFTER THE
FACT), OR HISTORICAL STUDIES
- HAVE OCCURRED IN THE PAST.

C. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
- THOSE IN WHICH DATA COLLECTION IS STRICTLY IN THE PRESENT
TIME.
3. THE SUBJECTS TO BE INCLUDED IN THE RESEARCH.

 THE SAMPLE SIZE OR NUMBER OF

SUBJECTS IN THE STUDY.
 THE METHOD USED TO COLLECT THE
DATA.
 THE RESEARCHER’S PLAN FOR
COMMUNICATING THE FINDINGS.
 TYPES OF BASIC RESEARCH DESIGN
A. DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 MOST COMMON METHOD USED IN RESEARCH.
 USED WHEN THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY IS TO
INQUIRE ABOUT THE PREVAILING CONDITIONS
OF EVENTS, OBJECTS OR PEOPLE.
 THE METHOD DESCRIBES “WHAT IS” IN
RELATION TO THE VARIABLES UNDER
CONSIDERATION.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
1. IT ASCERTAINS/DETERMINES PREVAILING CONDITIONS OF FACTS IN A
GROUP OR CASE STUDY.
2. IT GIVES EITHER A QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE, OR BOTH,
DESCRIPTION
OF THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP OR CASE UNDER
STUDY.
3. WHAT CAUSED THE PREVAILING CONDITIONS IS NOT EMPHASIZED.
4. THE STUDY OF CONDITIONS AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF TIME MAY BE
MADE
AND THE CHANGE THAT TOOK PLACE BETWEEN THE PERIODS MAY BE
EVALUATED FOR ANY VALUE IT GIVES.
5. COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
TWO GROUPS MAY BE MADE TO DETERMINE
THEIR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES.
6. THE VARIABLES INVOLVED IN THE STUDY ARE
NOT
USUALLY CONTROLLED.
7. STUDIES ON PREVAILING CONDITIONS MAY OR
CAN BE REPEATED FOR PURPOSES OF
COMPARISON AND VERIFICATION.
 TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
1. EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
• THIS PROVIDES AN IN-DEPTH EXPLORATION OF
A SINGLE PROCESS, VARIABLE, OR CONCEPT.
• THE WORD “EXPLORATORY” INDICATES THAT
NOT MUCH IS KNOWN.
• IT MEANS THAT A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
IS FAILED TO REVEAL ANY SIGNIFICANT
RESEARCH IN THE AREA.
2. DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY DESIGN
• IT IS USED WHEN ONE INTENDS TO
GATHER A RELATIVELY LIMITED DATA
FROM A RELATIVELY LARGE NUMBER
OF SUBJECTS.
• THIS IS USED TO MEASURE EXISTING
PHENOMENON WITHOUT INQUIRING
INTO WHY IT EXISTS.
3. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
• IT STUDIES THE RELATIONSHIP OF TWO OR
MORE VARIABLES.
• IT HAS A CONCEPTUAL BASE AND IS
LOOKING FOR CAUSE AND EFFECT
RELATIONSHIPS IN THE RESULTS.
• HOWEVER, IT CANNOT SPECIFY THE
DIRECTION OF THE RELATIONSHIP AT THE
BEGINNING OF THE STUDY.
4. COMPARATIVE DESIGN
• IT EXAMINES AND DESCRIBES
DIFFERENCES OF VARIABLES IN TWO OR
MORE GROUPS THAT OCCUR NATURALLY
IN THE SETTING.
• IT SPECIFIES CAUSE AND EFFECT AT THE
BEGINNING OF THE STUDY AND IS
BASED ON A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.
5. CASE STUDY
• IT IS AN EXTENSIVE EXPLORATION OF A
SINGLE UNIT OF STUDY, SUCH AS:
1. PERSONS
2. FAMILY GROUPS
3. COMMUNITIES OR INSTITUTIONS
4. VERY SMALL NUMBER OF SUBJECTS
WHO ARE EXAMINED INTENSIVELY.
6. FEASIBILITY STUDY
• IT TRIES TO DETERMINE THE
VIABILITY/POSSIBILITY OF AN
UNDERSTANDING OR A BUSINESS
VENTURE LIKE ESTABLISHING AN
INSTITUTION OR CONSTRUCTING AN
INFRASTRUCTURE.
7. EXPLANATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
• IT FOCUSES ON EXPLAINING THE ASPECTS OF A RESEARCH
STUDY IN A DETAILED MANNER.
• IT IS MEANT TO PROVIDE DETAILS WHERE A SMALL AMOUNT
OF INFORMATION EXISTS FOR A CERTAIN PRODUCT IN MIND
OF A RESEARCHER.
• THE RESEARCHER CAN ADAPT TO THE NEW DATA AND THE
NEW INSIGHT THAT HE DISCOVERS AS HE STUDIES THE
SUBJECT.
• IT EXPLAINS THE DETAILS ABOUT WHAT, HOW AND WHY
OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS.
8. DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN
• IT EVALUATES THE UNDERLYING CAUSE
OF A SPECIFIC TOPIC OR
PHENOMENON.
• IT HELPS ONE TO LEARN MORE ABOUT
THE FACTORS THAT CREATE
TROUBLESOME SITUATIONS.
II. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• HAS ONE (1) CENTRAL CHARACTERISTIC:
-MANIPULATING THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
AND MEASURING THE EFFECT ON THE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
• THE CLASSICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
CONSIST OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
AND THE CONTROL GROUP.
A. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE CAN BE MANIPULATED.
 WHILE IN THE CONTROL GROUP, THE DEPENDENT
VARIABLE IS MEASURED WHEN NO ALTERATION HAS
BEEN MADE ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
B. CONTROL GROUP
THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IS MEASURED IN THE
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP IN THE SAME WAY, AND AT
THE SAME, AS IN THE CONTROL GROUP.
 Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

Experime Changed Measured

ntal
Group
Control Unchanged Measured
Group
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
 IT IS THE CAUSE AND COULD BE MANIPULATED OR
CHANGED.
 ITS VALUE IS INDEPENDENT OF OTHER VARIABLES IN
THE STUDY.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
IT IS THE EFFECT THAT COULD BE MEASURED.
ITS VALUE DEPENDS ON CHANGES IN THE
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. MANIPULATION
IT MEANS THE RESEARCHER WORKS ON THE INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES SO THAT SOME OF THE SUBJECTS ARE AFFECTED.
SOME VARIABLES IN THE EXPERIMENT MAY NOT BE
MANIPULATED.
2. CONTROL
THE RESEARCHER USES ONE OR MORE MEASURES TO
CONTROL THE EXPERIMENT, INCLUDING THE USE OF AN
UNMANIPULATED CONTROL GROUP THAT IS COMPARED WITH
AN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP.
 CONTROL IS ATTAINED BY:
A. ALLOWING FOR NO VARIABLES;
B. SPECIFYING THE VARIATIONS TO BE ALLOWED; AND
C. DISTRIBUTING THE VARIATIONS EQUALLY.
3. RANDOMIZATION
 THE RESEARCHER ASSIGNS SUBJECTS TO THE CONTROL GROUP
OR TO THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP IN A RANDOM MANNER.
 THE RESEARCHER USES A SYSTEM WHEREBY THE CHOICE IS
INDEPENDENT OF HIS PERSONAL JUDGMENT AND BIAS.
 IT IS THE ONLY METHOD OF CONTROLLING ALL POSSIBLE
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES.
 The following symbols with their corresponding
meaning are used for experimental design:

Symbol Meaning
X Treatment
O Observation
R Randomization
EG Experimental Group
CG Control Group
TE Treatment effect
 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Design 1. One-Shot Case Study- considers
only one group exposed to an experimental
variable/treatment (X) and then given a post-
test (O). It is devoid of controls.
 Design 2. The One-Group Pre-test-Post-test Design-
this is the improvement of the first design, with the giving of
a pretest (O1) prior to the introduction of the experimental
variable/treatment (X) and post tested (O2).
Design 3. The Static-Group Comparison Design- This is
a design in which a group which has experienced
experimental variable/treatment (X) is compared with one
which has not for the purpose of establishing the effect of X.
This design involves two (2) groups, the experimental group
and the control group, and both are post-tested.
A.The True Experimental Design. It controls for
nearly all sources of internal and external validity. It is
the most scientific experimental design.
Design 1. The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design- It
involves two groups, both of which are formed by random
assignment. Both groups are pre-tested and post-tested but
only one group is given the experimental variable/treatment
(X). Threats to internal validity are prevented by means of a
second group. Maturation and testing for instance, are
manifested equally to both groups and so is regression.
Selection in taken care of by randomization.
Design 2. The Post-test Only Control Group Design. It
involves two groups, one of them receives the experimental
variable/treatment (X); both are post tested but are not pre-
tested. It is commonly confused with static group comparison
design but its difference with the latter lies on randomization.
This design is considered the last two groups of the Solomon
Four- Group design. The combination of random assignment
and the presence of control group control the sources of
internal validity except on mortality..
Design 3. The Solomon Four-Group Design – It
involves random assignment of subjects to four groups; two
(2) groups are pretested and the other two are not; one of
the pre-tested groups and one of the unpre-tested groups
receives the experimental variable/treatment (X).
C. Quasi-Experimental Design. It is quicker to use
and less expensive. It aims to establish a cause and
effect relationship between an independent and
dependent variable. But do not involve randomization.
Design 1. Time Series Design- It is an
elaboration of the one-group pretest- posttest
design in which one group is,
-repeatedly pre-tested,
-exposed to a treatment, and
-repeatedly post tested.
DESIGN 2. NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP
DESIGN – IT IS LIKE THE PRE-TEST POSTTEST CONTROL
GROUP DESIGN. BUT IT DOES NOT INVOLVE RANDOM
ASSIGNMENT. THE BROKEN LINE BETWEEN THE TWO (2)
GROUPS SUGGESTS NO RANDOMIZATION DONE. THE LACK
OF RANDOM ASSIGNMENT ADDS A SOURCE OF INVALIDITY
NOT ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRE-TEST POSTTEST CONTROL
NOTE:
NONEQUIVALENT DESIGN IS RECOGNIZED AS WELL
WORTH USING IN MANY INSTANCES IN WHICH DESIGN
#1, #2 AND #3 OF THE TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
ARE IMPOSSIBLE TO USE.
DESIGN 3. COUNTER-BALANCE DESIGN – ALL
GROUPS RECEIVE ALL TREATMENTS BUT IN A
DIFFERENT ORDER. THE ONLY RESTRICTION IS THAT
THE NUMBER OF CONTROLLED GROUPS. IT WAS
ALSO NAMED “ROTATION EXPERIMENT” (MCCALL,
1923); “COUNTERBALANCED DESIGN”
(UNDERWOOD 1949); “CROSS-OVER DESIGN”
(COCHRAN AND COX 1957); “SWITCH-OVER
DESIGN” (KEMPTHORNE 1952); AND “LATIN-SQUARE
ARRANGEMENT” (CAMPBELL AND STANLEY 1963).
 Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4

Group A X 1O X 2O X 3O X 4O

Group B X 2O X 4O X 1O X 3O

Group C X 3O X 1O X 4O X 2O

Group D X 4O X 3O X 2O X 1O
III. STATISTICAL DESIGN
IT IS A METHOD FOR PLANNING AND CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS WHEN
INVESTIGATING RELATIONS BETWEEN INPUT AND OUTPUT TO A PROCESS.
A. COMPLETE RANDOMIZED DESIGN (CRD)
• IT IS A DESIGN WHERE THE TREATMENTS ARE ASSIGNED
COMPLETELY AT RANDOM SO THAT EACH EXPERIMENTAL UNIT
HAS THE SAME CHANCE OF RECEIVING ANY ONE TREATMENT.
NOTE:
FOR CRD, ANY DIFFERENCE AMONG EXPERIMENTAL UNITS
RECEIVING THE SAME TREATMENT IS CONSIDERED AS EXPERIMENTAL
ERROR. HENCE, CRD IS APPROPRIATE ONLY FOR EXPERIMENTS
WITH HOMOGENEOUS EXPERIMENTAL
UNITS, SUCH AS LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
WHERE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ARE
RELATIVELY EASY TO CONTROL. FOR FIELD
EXPERIMENTS, WHERE THERE IS GENERALLY
LARGE VARIATION AMONG EXPERIMENTAL
PLOTS IN SUCH ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AS
SOIL, THE CRD IS RARELY USED.
 STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE FOR RANDOMIZATION AND LAYOUT OF CRD:
1. DETERMINE THE TOTAL NUMBER OF EXPERIMENTAL UNITS (N): AS THE PRODUCT
OF THE NUMBER OF TREATMENTS (T) AND THE NUMBER OF REPLICATIONS (R);
THAT IS,

EXAMPLE:
N=RT
N=5 X 4 = 20. HERE, ONE POT WITH A SINGLE PLANT IN IT MAY BE
CALLED A UNIT/PLOT. IN CASE THE NUMBER OF REPLICATIONS IS NOT THE
SAME FOR ALL THE TREATMENTS, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF EXPERIMENTAL
UNITS IS OBTAINED AS THE SUM OF THE REPLICATIONS FOR EACH
TREATMENT.
2. ASSIGN A NUMBER TO EACH EXPERIMENTAL
UNIT/PLOT IN ANY CONVENIENT MANNER;
CONSECUTIVELY FROM 1 TO N.
3. ASSIGN THE TREATMENTS TO THE EXPERIMENTAL
UNITS/PLOTS RANDOMLY USING A TABLE OF
RANDOM NUMBERS OR DRAW LOTS TO OBTAIN THE
EXPERIMENTAL UNITS.
EXAMPLE: N=20
RANDOM NUMBER: 37, 80, 76, 02, 65, 27, 54, 77, 48, 73
SEQUENCE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10
RANDOM NUMBERS: 86, 30, 67, 05, 50, 31, 04, 18, 41,
89
SEQUENCE: 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
4. RANK THE N RANDOM NUMBERS OBTAINED IN
ASCENDING
RANDOM
NO.
OR DESCENDING
SEQUENCE RANK
ORDER.
RANDOM
NO.
SEQUENCE RANK

37 1 8 86 11 19
80 2 18 30 12 6
76 3 16 67 13 14
02 4 1 05 14 3
65 5 13 50 15 11
27 6 5 31 16 7
54 7 12 04 17 2
77 8 17 18 18 4
48 9 10 41 19 9
73 10 15 89 20 20
5. DIVIDE THE N RANKS DERIVED INTO T GROUPS,
EACH CONSISTING OF R NUMBERS, ACCORDING
TO THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THE RANDOM
NUMBERS APPEARED.
EXAMPLE: THE 20 RANKS ARE DIVIDED INTO 4
GROUPS,
NO. EACH CONSISTING OF 5 NUMBERS.
GROUP RANKS IN THE GROUP

1 8 13 10 14 2

2 18 5 15 3 4

3 16 12 19 11 9

4 1 17 6 7 20
6. ASSIGN THE TREATMENTS (T) TO THE EXPERIMENTAL
UNITS/PLOTS (N), BY USING THE GROUP NUMBER AS
THE TREATMENT NUMBER AND THE CORRESPONDING
RANKS IN EACH GROUP AS THE PLOT NUMBER IN WHICH
THE CORRESPONDING TREATMENT IS TO BE ASSIGNED.
EXAMPLE:
• THE FIRST GROUP IS ASSIGNED TO TREATMENT A
(PLOTS 8, 13, 10, 14, 2);
• THE SECOND GROUP IS ASSIGNED TO TREATMENT
B (PLOTS 18, 5 , 15, 3, 4);
• THE THIRD GROUP IS ASSIGNED TO TREATMENT C (PLOTS 16, 12,
19, 11, 9)
• THE FOURTH GROUP IS ASSIGNED TO TREATMENT D (PLOTS 1, 17,
1 2 3 4
6, 7, 20) PLOT

TREATME D A B B
NT

5 6 7 8
B D D A
9 10 11 12
C A C C

13 14 15 16
A A B C

17 18 19 20
D B C D
 THE MAJOR ADVANTAGE OF CRD IS THE SIMPLICITY IN THE
COMPUTATION OF ITS ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ESPECIALLY
WHEN THE NUMBER OF REPLICATIONS IS NOT UNIFORM FOR
ALL TREATMENTS.
B. RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN (RCBD)
• IT DIVIDES THE EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS INTO MORE
OR LESS HOMOGENEOUS GROUPS CALLED BLOCKS THEN
THE TREATMENT/INTERVENTION GETS RANDOMLY ASSIGNED
WITHIN EACH BLOCK.
• BLOCKING IS DONE TO MAKE SURE THAT THE
EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS IN A GROUP HAVE SIMILAR
CHARACTERISTICS SO
THAT THE OBSERVED DIFFERENCES AMONG THE
GROUPS WILL BE LARGELY DUE TO THE
TREATMENTS.
• BLOCKING ALSO HELPS IN GIVING MORE
ACCURATE RESULTS THAN THE CRD.
• THERE ARE NO RESTRICTIONS AS TO THE
NUMBER OF TREATMENTS OR NUMBER OF
BLOCKS IN THE EXPERIMENTS.
HOWEVER, IT IS DIFFICULT TO FORM BLOCKS WITH
HOMOGENEOUS EXPERIMENTAL UNITS AND A LARGE
ERROR WILL BE OBTAINED WHEN VARIATIONS AMONG
EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS WITHIN A BLOCK IS LARGE.
NOTE:
RCBD IS MOST APPROPRIATE TO USE IF:
1. THE SUBJECTS CAN BE CATEGORIZED ACCORDING
TO CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS LIKE GENDER, AGE,
WEIGHT, AND HEIGHT WHICH CAN AFFECT
COMPARISON OF TREATMENTS; AND
2. A FEW DROP-OUTS ARE EXPECTED.
EXAMPLE:
HOW WILL YOU DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT WITH FOUR
(4) TREATMENTS REPLICATED THREE (3) TIMES?
SOLUTION:
RANDOMIZATION WILL BE DONE BLOCK BY BLOCK USING A
TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS. IN THIS EXPERIMENT,
THERE WILL BE THREE (3) BLOCKS SINCE THERE ARE 3
REPLICATES. IN EACH BLOCK THE FOUR (4) TREATMENTS
ARE ASSIGNED
RANDOMLY TO EACH OF THE 4 SUBJECTS. FOR
THE FIRST BLOCK WE GET THE FOLLOWING:

Random Subject Rank Treatme

No. nt
920 1 4 A
770 2 3 B
240 3 1 C
490 4 2 D
 GROUP NUMBER BLOCK 1
1 TREATMENT C
2 TREATMENT D
3 TREATMENT B
4 TREATMENT A

THE SAME WILL BE DONE FOR THE REST OF THE

BLOCKS.
C. FACTORIAL DESIGN
• BASICALLY IT IS THE EXTENSION OF THE TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. MORE GROUPS, MORE
TREATMENTS AND MORE VARIABLES ARE USED. IT THE
RESEARCHER TO MEASURE NOT ONLY THE MAIN EFFECT
OF EACH INDEPENDENT VARIABLE ON THE DEPENDENT
VARIABLE BUT ALSO THE INTERACTION EFFECTS OF THE
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES. YOU SHOULD NOT
INVESTIGATE A PHENOMENON ON JUST ONE VARIABLE.
USING TWO OR THREE VARIABLES WILL MAKE
EXPERIMENT MORE REALISTIC.
• THE TERM FACTORIAL MEANS THAT TWO OR MORE
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES ARE BEING INVESTIGATED, EACH
VARIABLE HAVING TWO OR MORE LEVELS.
• ITS PURPOSE IS TO EVALUATE WHETHER THE EFFECTS OF AN
EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLE ARE GENERALIZABLE ACROSS ALL
LEVELS OF A CONTROL VARIABLE OR WHETHER THE
EFFECTS ARE SPECIFIC TO SPECIFIC LEVELS OF THE
CONTROL VARIABLE.
• MOREOVER, IT CAN TELL IF THERE IS AN INTERACTION
AMONG VARIABLES WHICH A SINGLE VARIABLE EXPERIMENT
CANNOT.
III. QUALITATIVE METHOD
A. HISTORICAL METHOD
• IT IS PAST ORIENTED.
• THE OBJECTIVE IS TO INTERPRET EVENTS IN THE LIGHT OF
THE PRESENT SITUATION.
B. ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD
• IT IS A QUALITATIVE METHOD FOR COLLECTING DATA OFTEN USED IN
THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. DATA ARE COLLECTED
THROUGH OBSERVATIONS AND INTERVIEWS, WHICH ARE THEN USED
TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT HOW SOCIETIES AND INDIVIDUALS
FUNCTION.
• IT IS A RESEARCH METHOD IN WHICH RESEARCHERS
OBSERVE THE TRAITS AND BEHAVIORS OF A SPECIFIC
DEMOGRAPHIC, COMMUNITY, GROUP OR ORGANIZATION IN
REAL TIME.
• THE TERM CAN ALSO REFER TO THE DOCUMENTATION OR
RESEARCH REPORT THAT AN ETHNOGRAPHER PREPARES
WHEN AN ETHNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATION IS OVER.

C. PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD
• IT IS A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH THAT SEEKS TO
UNDERSTAND AND DESCRIBE THE UNIVERSAL ESSENCE OF
A PHENOMENON.
• THE APPROACH INVESTIGATES THE EVERYDAY
EXPERIENCES OF HUMAN BEINGS WHILE SUSPENDING
THE RESEARCHERS’ PRECONCEIVED ASSUMPTIONS
•ABOUT
In other words, phenomenological
THE PHENOMENON.

research studies lived

experiences to gain deeper
insights into how people
understand those experiences.
 METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA FOR
PHENOMENOLOGICAL DESIGNS
• INTERVIEWS
• PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
• CONVERSATIONS WITH PARTICIPANTS
• ANALYSIS OF PERSONAL TEXT
• ACTION RESEARCH
• FOCUS MEETINGS
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN RESEARCH
RESEARCH, WHETHER SCIENTIFIC, SOCIAL OR LITERARY
IN NATURE, REQUIRES ACCESS TO RELEVANT AND CREDIBLE
INFORMATION. RESEARCHERS USE A VARIETY OF METHODS
TO OBTAIN INFORMATION, SUCH AS THROUGH RESEARCH
JOURNALS, THE INTERNET AND FROM INTERVIEWING PEOPLE.
RESEARCHERS MAY SEEK OUT SECONDARY INFORMATION,
INFORMATION ACQUIRED THROUGH OTHER STUDIES AND
FROM OTHER RESEARCHERS, OR THEY USE METHODS TO
OBTAIN PRIMARY RESOURCES SUCH AS QUESTIONNAIRES
AND STATISTICAL DATA.
RESEARCH TOOL/INSTRUMENT
• ANYTHING THAT BECOMES A MEAN OF COLLECTING
INFORMATION/DATA FOR A SCIENTIFIC STUDY.
• ANY ITEM THAT IS USED TO ACHIEVE A GOAL. THEY
ARE USUALLY MULTIPURPOSE.
RESEARCH EQUIPMENT
• A SET OF TOOLS THAT ARE DESIGNATED FOR A
SPECIFIC TASK OR USED TO ACHIEVE A
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE.
THE INTERNET
• THE INTERNET IS AN INVALUABLE RESOURCE OF INFORMATION.
• IT CONSISTS OF MILLIONS UPON MILLIONS OF PAGES AND WEBSITES
DEDICATED TO DISPERSING INFORMATION.
• IT IS CONSTANTLY UPDATED, WHICH MAKES INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM
THE INTERNET THE MOST UP TO DATE.
• IT COVERS INFORMATION ON EVERY TOPIC AVAILABLE. LIBRARIES AND
RESEARCH JOURNALS PUBLISH RESEARCH INFORMATION ONLINE, MAKING
IT ACCESSIBLE FROM ANY LOCATION.
• HOWEVER, ONE OF THE BIGGEST OBSTACLES, RESEARCHERS FACE WITH
THE INTERNET IS THE PLETHORA/PLENTY OF INFORMATION. SUCH VAST
RESOURCES MAKE IT DIFFICULT FOR RESEARCHERS TO SIFT/SCREEN
THROUGH TO FIND THE MOST RELEVANT AND CREDIBLE RESOURCES.
LIBRARIES
• THE INTERNET HAS NOT YET REPLACED LIBRARIES, BOOKS,
JOURNALS AND OTHER CRITICAL PUBLICATIONS.
• LIBRARIES PROVIDE THE MOST DIRECT METHOD TO OBTAINING
RELEVANT AND CREDIBLE RESEARCH MATERIALS.
• LIBRARY SEARCH ENGINES AND DATABASES; PROVIDE
MATERIALS THAT PERTAIN TO THE SUBJECT THE RESEARCHER
WANTS TO KNOW ABOUT.
• HOWEVER, THE BIGGEST DOWNFALL WITH LIBRARIES AND THE
RESOURCES CONTAINED WITHIN LIBRARIES IS THAT THE
INFORMATION DOES NOT ALWAYS REFLECT CURRENT OPINIONS
AND STUDIES, WHEREAS THE INTERNET MOST LIKELY WILL.
QUESTIONNAIRES AND SURVEYS
• SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES PROVIDE SOCIAL RESEARCHERS
WITH QUANTIFIABLE INFORMATION.
• INFORMATION IS OBTAINED THROUGH FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEWS,
ANONYMOUS RESPONSE SURVEYS OR QUESTIONNAIRES OR VIA
TELEPHONE, COMPUTERIZED KIOSKS OR EMAIL.
• RESEARCHERS ADMINISTER SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES TO
TARGET GROUPS TO GET SPECIFIC INFORMATION WITHIN A
SPECIFIED PERIOD.
• THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH TOOL IS EFFECTIVE IN FINDING OUT
CULTURAL ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS IN PARTICULAR REGIONS OR
TOWNS, WHERE RESEARCH JOURNALS MAY NOT HAVE SPECIFIC AND
ACCURATE INFORMATION.
STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS
• STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS IS AN ESSENTIAL
RESEARCH TOOL.
• INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM QUESTIONNAIRES
AND SURVEYS CAN BE COMPILED INTO
STATISTICS.
• ONCE COMPILED INTO STATISTICAL DATA,
RESEARCHERS CAN DEVISE THEORIES AND LOOK
FOR PATTERNS THAT MAY EXPLAIN OR CONFIRM
THEIR RESEARCH.
THANK YOU