Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills thru quantitative research.

Nature of Inquiry

- a req for info

- act of asking questions

Nature of research

- done to find and report new knowledge about something.

- systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach
new conclusions.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

- more onto bigger number of sample size.

- OBJECTIVE. Seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts.

- CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS. researchers know in advance what they r looking for.

- STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS. standardized instruments guide data collection, thus,

ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data.

- NUMERICAL DATA. charts and tables allow u to see evidence collected.

- LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. arrives at a move reliable data analysis, using a normal population distribution
curve.

- REPLICATION. methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus strengthening and
reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusion. (Can prove that
research is valid.)

- FUTURE OUTCOMES. quanti research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery. (Can predict)

Research Terminology

•Population - collection of individuals with the same characteristics.

•Sample - representative of the population. (Direct comparison between whole population and ...) (Ex.
Age range, etc.)

• Data - information collected from the research sample. (Specific to sample answers)

• Experiment - research intervention. (What u did to collect data) (manipulation for research)
• Variable - target measurement and research data. (Answer to research problem) (highlight of
research)

• Instrument - data collecting tool. (Get the info of respondents.) (Ex. Survey, etc.)

• Instrumentation - process of data collection. (Used of tool (instrument))

• Background - rationale (reason why u r conducting this study)

• Literature - source and references used as research evidences.

• Method - research procedure.

• Design - Structure of research. (Its quantitative)

• Result - research findings. (Interpretation and analysis)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ADVANTAGES

1. Objective

2. Stats techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows comprehension of a huge amount of
vital characteristics of data.

3. Real and unbiased.

4. Numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way.

5. Quanti studies r replicable.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Requires large number of respondents.

2. It's costly.

3. Explaining variations r usually ignored.

4. Much info r difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically on sensitive issues
like pre marital sex, domestic violence, among others.

5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate.
Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who r just guessing in answering the Instrument.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental
- Allows the researcher to control the situation, enabling them to answer the question: What cause
something occur?

- it also allows the researcher to identify cause and effects relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.

(Placebo - ex. when u consider water as a cure to ur massive headache.)

- it supports the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the
study; the approach provides the highest degree of level of evidence..

Pre-Experimental design

- applies to experimental design with least internal validity. One type pre-experiment, the simple group:
pretest-posttest..

- instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one group, the posttest of the treated groups
is compared with that of untreated group. Measuring the effect as the difference between groups marks
this as between-subjects design.

Quasi-Experimental Design

- the researcher can collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more existing
measures.

- involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes.

2 Types under Quasi-Exp

Non-equivalent Control Group

- refers to chance of failure of random assignments to equalize the conditions by converting a true
experiment into...

Interrupted Time Series Design

- employs multiple measures before and after experimental intervention.

- it differs from the single-group pre-experiment that has only one pretest and one posttest.

- lesser work time, more productivity.

- users of this design assume that the time threats such as history or maturation appear regular changes
in the measure prior to the intervention.

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

- employs both treated and control groups to deal with time-related rival explanations.
- (treated means manipulated)

- (control groups represent natural, publicly known.)

- a control group reflect changes other than those due to the treatment that occur during the time of
the study. Such as changes include effects of outside events, maturation by the subjects...

- offers the highest internal validity.

• Quasi-Experimental design differs from true experimental design by the absence of random
assignment of subjects to different conditions.

PRE-EXPERIMENTAL- done before experimental design (pre-test)

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL - resembles an experimental design without random selection of group samples.

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL - checks all boxes: intervention, treated and control group (untreated).

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

- only has one design under it.

- researchers observes the phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables r introduced.

- the variables r not deliberately manipulated nor the setting controlled.

- collect data without manipulating

- main purpose; OBSERVE, DESCRIBE, DOCUMENT.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN

A. SURVEY - used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples chosen
from a population. This is useful when the objective of the study is to sew the general picture of the
population under investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics, opinions, and their
knowledge about the behavior towards certain phenomenon.

B. CORRELATIONAL - conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction,
associations and/or relationship between different variables or groups of respondents under study.

- relation of two or more things.

- it has 3 types.

a. Bivariate Correlational Studies - obtain scores from 2 variables for each subject, and then uses them
to calculate a correlation coefficient. The term bivariate implies that the 2 variables r correlated
(variables r selected because they r believe to be related).
 b. Prediction Studies - uses correlation coefficient to show how 1 variable (the predictor variables)
predicts another (the criterion variables).

c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies - all variables in the study can contribute to the overall
prediction in an equation that adds together the predictive power of each identified variable.

C. EX-POST FACTO OR CAUSAL COMPARATIVE - derives conclusions from observations and

manifestations that already occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables. It
discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs.

D. COMPARATIVE - compare 2 distinct groups on the basis of selected attributes such as knowledge
level, perceptions, and attitudes, physical or psychological symptoms.

E. EVALUATIVE - used to determine what has happened during a given activity or an in institution.
Judgement can be in the forms of social utility, desirability, or effectiveness of a process. Ex. Rate of
progress that happened among the students who were exposed to modular instruction.

F. METHODOLOGICAL - implementation of a variety of methodologies forms a critical part of achieving

the goal of developing a scale-matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be
integrated.

G. NORMATIVE - norm level of characteristics of a given behavior. Behavioral patterns. For example, if u
r conducting a research on the study habits pf the high school students u r to use the range of score to
describe..

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

- ANTHROPOLOGY is a research method of combining qualitative..

- in contemporary academic, socio-cultural and political climate these concepts have immense symbolic
overtones.

- quantitative research is use in Anthropology in many...

VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

- this is the "target measurement" or "outcome" of ur problem statement/research question.

- variables r "things" we r measuring, or collecting data (information)...

- DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES used to describe characteristics of a population, group, or sample of

population.

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

DEPENDENT – accept changes from independent variables. Output.

 INDEPENDENT - hypothesized by the researches to cause variation or change in the dependent
variables.

_____________________________________________

CHAPTER 1 - THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Selecting A Topic

- find a topic that u r passionate about. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet
broad enough to find adequate information.

- pick a topic that interests u.

Developing A Research Topic Once U Have A Broad Topic In Mind

- research will help u develop ur topic and hone or change it in more appropriate ways.

- BRAINSTORM CONCEPT. Try to brainstorm all the words or concepts u can that might be related to that
topic an write them down.

- finding what topics would u be interested on focusing on.

- DEVELOP A RESEARCH QUESTION. curiosity. A questions u r going to answer in ur paper by doing more,
in-depth research.

- WHAT IS UR GENERAL APPROACH TO THE TOPIC? Historical Angle, focusing on a particular time period.
Geographical Angle, focusing on a particular part of the world (location based). Sociological Angle,
focusing on a particular group of people (experience based).

- RESEARCH IS A DYNAMIC PROCESS. do not be afraid to discover new things and modify or refine ur
topic.

- start doing some EXPLORATORY, IN-DEPTH RESEARCH.

Tips

• Topic development process will help to develop ur paper, which essentially u proposed answer to ur
research question.

• U will then be ready to use the sources u've found, and find more sources in order to support that
thesis, or to answer ur research question.

IMPROVING A TOPIC
- explore many possible sources where one can discover the existence of a problem that is just waiting
to be solved.

- be aware. Question what is presented to you and conduct a research about it.

SUGGESTED SOURCES OF A GOOF RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Personal experiences in life

2. Existing programs that need to be improved

3. Further inquiry of a conducted study

4. Through consultation experts

5. Through extensive readings in the library

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCHABLE PROBLEMS

- ORIGINALITY (new, novice; novel)

- SIGNIFICANT (solution, relevance, usefulness, application, verification, validation, unique contribution

to knowledge, advancement of profession, practical or theoretical significance, has potential for the
development of new knowledge)

- PRACTICAL (appropriate method, suitable Instruments, reasonable cost, attainable in terms of time,
availability of sources, willingness of respondents)

- MEASURABLE (tangible, observable, perceivable, existence in the real world, clear concepts, evidence)

STRATEGIES TO HELP NARROW UR TOPIC

- ASPECT, choose one lend through which to view the research problem, or look at just one facet of it.

- COMPONENTS, determine if ur initial variable or unit of analysis can be broken into smaller parts,
which can then be analyzed more precisely.

- METHODOLOGY, the way in which u gather information can reduce the domain of interpretive analysis
needed to address the research problem.

- PLACE, the smaller the geographic unit of analysis, the more narrow the focus. Specified the places.

- RELATIONSHIP, how do two or more different perspective or variables relate to one another.

- TIME, the shorter the time period of the study, the more narrow the focus.

FORMULATING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

- used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study.

- ultimate goal is to transform a generalize problem into a targeted, well defined problem.

WHAT IS THE FORMAT FOR WRITING A SOP

- Written in 3 parts.

- Part A (THE IDEAL): describe the desire goal or ideal situation; explains how things should be.

- PART B (REALITY): describe a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part A from being
achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short of the goal or ideal.

- PART C (CONSEQUENCES): identifies the way u propose to improve the current situation band move it
closer to the goal or ideal.

CHAPTER 1

BG OF THE STUDY - includes purpose and reason behind the conduct of the study. Serves as
introduction.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM - 3-6 questions. Main problem that research is trying to solve.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS - coverage of the study and all the things that will not cover in order to be
specific.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY - list down the beneficiaries.

DEFINITION OF TERMS - define variables. Meaning of variables and any other terminologies that needs
the definition. (Operational definition. How people r using it in the study.)

_____________________________________________

CHAPTER 2

TYPES OF DEFINITION TERMS

- Conceptual Definition

- Operational Definition

Functions of Definition of Terms

- it establishes the rules and procedures the investigator will use...

RESEARCH ETHICS

- researchers must ensure that the study will not cause people harm.

- research participants should have informed consent, must be cognizant about the general purpose of
the study and should not be exposed to unusual risk.

- ur research should be consistent with the principle pf excellence.

- integrity also requires honesty and accuracy in the collection, analysis and reporting data.

3 very important research ethical issues

(1) Protecting Participants From Harm

Participants in a research study r protected from physical.

(2) Ensuring Confidentiality Of Data

All subjects should be assured that any data collected from or about them will be held in confidence.

(3) Subject/Participant Deception

No full or erroneous information.

CITATIONS

1. DIRECT VOICE

- an exact quotation from the source.

- is labelled using the family name of the source, the data od publication of the source and the page in
which the information is found.

- often used for emphasis.

Ex. Tuguinayo (2015, p.10) states that poverty is "not a hindrance to success in life."

2. INDIRECT VOICE

- an idea taken from the source. Paraphrase.

- is labelled using the family name of the source and the date of publication. The name of the source
forms part of the structure of the sentence.

- tend to used when u r referring to the ideas of on particular researcher.

Ex. Tuguinayo (2015) believes that poverty may not necessarily hinders the success of one's individual
life.

3. EXTERNAL VOICE

- taken from the source, spoken in general terms. Paraphrase.

- is labelled using the family name of the source...

- outside the sentence yung labelled.

- focus on information and often to make general points.

Ex. Poverty may not necessarily hinder the success of an individual's life. (Tuguinayo, 2015)

REFERENCE LIST (BIBLIOGRAPHY)

Referencing is important because;

1. It shows where u got information from (u r not making up)

2. It acknowledges the contribution of other people.

3. It helps other people find source u found if they want more detail.

4. It stops u being accused of plagiarism.

5. It allows people to check the accuracy of ur interpretation of other people's work.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Approaches of RRL

1. Traditional Review of Literature

- provides an overview of the research findings on particular topics.

Types of Traditional Review

1. Conceptual Review - analysis of concepts or ideas to give meaning to some national or world issues.
(Specific terminology that u want to give meaning)

2. Critical Review - focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings and results of their
application to situation.

3. State-of-the-Art Review - makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the subject.
(5 years - latest)
4. Expert Review - encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of influence of certain
ideology, paradigm, or belief on him/her.

5. Scoping Review - prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of project making about
community development, government policies, and health services, among others. (look for papers that
covers specific topic in specific area)

2. Systematic Review of Literature

- aim to find as much as possible pf the research relevant to the particular research questions and use
explicit methods to identify what can reliably be said on the basis of these studies.

SYNTHESIS

- Building up a general understanding of an idea or concept.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

- researcher's understanding of how the particular variables in his study connect with each other.

- it identifies the variables required in the research investigation.

- INPUT > PROCESS > OUTPUT

- INPUT ( SOP)

- PROCESS (steps u r willing to take) (ex. Conduct survey, exp, etc)

- OUTPUT (answer for the input) (descriptive).

_____________________________________________

CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGNS - dependent on the researchers' aims in conducting the study.

- Experimental

- Non-experimental (descriptive)

Methods of descriptive

- survey

- correlational

- ex-post facto
- comparative

- evaluative

- methodological (combination of any of the 5)

THE INSTRUMENTATION

- tool

- INSTRUMENT is a generic term used by a researchers for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc)

- INSTRUMENTATION is the course of action (the process of developing, testing, and using the device.

FORMULATING THE INSTRUMENT

Usability

- refers to the ease w/which an instrument can be administered, interpreted by the participant, and
scored/interpreted by the researcher.

Validity

- the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs ad it is
designed to perform. Measured in degrees.

Sampling Techniques

Population
- total number pf participants.
Sample
- respondents

Sampling Techniques
- [ ] Random Sampling - members of the population has an equal chance of being selected. (Whoever is
avail)
- [ ] Stratified Sampling - members from subgroups with the population will be selected. (Sections,
grades, strands)
- [ ] Cluster Sampling - groups and not individuals will be selected. (Instead of choosing 30 students from
use, u will include all students)
- [ ] System Sampling - individual r selected from a list by taking every nth number from the population.
(for example, 5 people will be taken from different sections)

Research Instrument
- tools that measure variables.
Characteristics of a Research Instrument
- validity, established using a panel of experts.
- Reliability, give consistent results.
- Objectivity, no subjective judgements.

Mode of survey or descriptive type of research

- Direct administration
- Mail survey
- Telephone survey
- Personal interview

Construction of survey questionnaires

Step 1: Planning
- identify the purpose and the target group.
Step 2: Construction
- identify the objectives and develop a table of specifications. The specifications should narrow the
purpose and identify the content areas. Determine the format to be used i.e. likert scale, multiple
choices, one-on-one interview, etc.
Step 3: Quantitative Evaluation
- administer a pilot study to a representative sample.
Step 4: Validation
- consult 2 to 3 experts in the field of the study i.e. research adviser, statistician, etc.

Instrumentation
- the process of administering the tool that we need used.

A self-administered questionnaire
- should have very clear instructions and questions, follow a logical order and avoid complex filtering.
(bcoz u r not there to explain the questionnaires)
- The respondents r more likely to answer truthfully without prompting from an interviewer.
- you r not physically there to oversee once you have given the questionnaire.
- u leave them to answer with their own pace.

Interviewer-administered Questionnaire
- u r conducting interview face-to-face or via telephone (video call, phone call, etc)
- The questions can be more complex as they can be clarified by the interviewers.
- However, the presence of an interviewer may “pressurize” the respondents to give “appropriate”
rather than truthful answer.
- rather than explaining in detail on what really happen.

6 types of questionnaire
Structured questionnaire
- standardized
- Include pre-coded questions with well-defined skipping patterns to follow the sequence of questions.
- very easy to administer
- data is very easy to manage
Structured Interview
- Interviewer asks a set of standards, predetermined questions about particular topics, in a specific
order.
- Interviewer may provide clarification on some questions.
- Typically used in surveys

Unstructured questionnaire
- open-ended and vague opinion-type questions.

Unstructured interviews
- no specific guidelines
- No questions that were prepared before hand
- the only thing u have is your topic

Quasi-structured questionnaire
- answers that r not feasible to enumerate completely.

Semi-structured interview
- prepared set of questions but have follow up questions
- It is useful when there is a need to collect in-depth info in a systematic manner from a number of
respondents or interviewees.

CHAPTER IV

Presentation, Result, and Discussion.

- the purpose is to summarize the collected data and statistical treatment, and/or mechanics, of
analysis. The first paragraph should briefly restate the problem, taken from chapter I.

CONTENT
1. Presentation Data - begins with a description sample. Next, descriptive statistics (tally the data). Each
tabulation shall present accurately recorded data with the statistical treatment right after.
2. Summary of Findings - based on SOP questions. Making statements directly relating from your data to
the SOP. Summary of everything you presented. Only the highlight should be presented. The most
important thing students should know. Also, cite studies to support ur statements.

Different Presentation of Data

Textual Presentation Data

- plainly written in text.

Tabular Presentation Data

- use table that organizes data. Its simple but complete. (Tabular with textual for our research).
Demographic Profile example.

Formula: %=f/N*100
Frequency (tally) divided by total number of participants and multiply by 100 to get the percentage.
F = 60
N =300
Given = 100

- [ ] Graphical Methods of Presenting Data

- line graph. Use mostly to show a continuous change or trend.
- Only supplementary to tabular and textual presentation.
- Bar Graph, best use when comparing means or percentage.
- Pie Chart, used to show how parts of a whole compare to each other and to the whole.

Analyzing Through The Hypothesis

(Coefficient Correlation)
- specific statement of prediction.
- Describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect…
- Describes all other possible outcomes.
- Prediction of variable A and B is called ALTERNATIVE hypotheses.
- No relation between variable A and B is called NULL hypotheses.

Pattern in creating hypotheses.

:(A) teaching strategy, (B) Class participation)
HA- there is a significant relationship between the teaching strategy and class participation of students.
H0 - there is no significant relationship between the teaching strategy and class participation of
students.

ANALYZE DATA
The pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (pearson r)

CHI-SQUARE
- commonly used method of comparing proportions. It shows the relationship between nominal or
ordinal data.
- can also be used to test the significance of the relationship between variables when data r expressed in
terms of frequencies of joint occurrence.
Fo - observe number of cases
Fe - expected number of cases

N = total of participants
DF = (column - 1) (row - 1)
LS - A = 0.05
CV = X^

CHAPTER V
- [ ] Present a summary of the findings.
- [ ] Conclusion of what u reported in chapter 4.
u r required to evaluate ur own work and provide personal insights.

1. Conclusion - highlight the main or major findings that u had stated in chap 4. Objective is to refresh
the reader’s understanding of the findings or results. There is no need to explain in detail the findings or
results and avoid the temptation to copy and paste from chap 4.
- keep it simple and do not conclude too much research jargon so that someone who is not be in field
can understand.

2. Recommendation
- it must be logical, specific, attainable and relevant.
- Should be address to persons, organizations, or agencies directly concerned with the issues or to those
who can immediately recommended solutions.
- Present another topic which is very relevant to the present study that can be further investigated by
future researchers. But never recommended anythings that is not part of ur study or not being
mentioned in ur findings.
- After organizing ur thoughts as to what would be the contents of ur recommendation, u should write it
in simple present tense.