Advanced Cartography and

Map reading
Abiyot Legesse(PhD)
Basics of Cartography
– Definition
– Forms of representation
– Need for maps
– Basic characteristics of maps
– Purpose of maps
– Categories of maps
– Emphasis on cartographic
representation
The concept of Dualism in Geography
& Cartography
• Theory vs empirics,
• Objective vs subjective,
• Unique vs general,
• Global vs local,
• Rural vs urban, and,
• Art vs science
• Cartography vs Map making
 Cartography?
• Sciences or Art? Or both?

• informationally effective but also

aesthetically pleasing.
 …cont’d
• Each mapping problem is unique;
• its solutions cannot be
predetermined by rigid formulas.
• How well the cartographic designer
can orchestrate all the variables in
the abstraction processes is the
measure of how much of an artist he
or she is.
 …cont’d
• The idea that there is an art to
cartography suggests that its practice as a
profession involves more than the mere
learning of a set of well established rules
and conventions.
• The art in cartography is the
cartographer’s ability to synthesize the
various ingredients involved in the
abstraction process into an organized
whole that facilitates the communication of
ideas.
 Def. of Cartography by the
International Cartographic Association

• The art, science, and technology of

making maps, together with their study as
scientific documents and works of art.

• In this context may be regarded as

including all types of maps, plans,
charts, and sections, three-dimensional
models and globes representing the Earth
or any celestial body at any scale (Meyen
1973).
 …cont’d
• Study of maps
• An efficient way of
– manipulating,
– analyzing and
– expressing ideas, forms, and
relationships that occur in two
and three dimensional space
 Cont’d
• Combining science, aesthetics, and
technique, cartography builds on the
premise that reality can be modeled
in ways that communicate spatial
information effectively.
 Cont’d
• Cartography is also about
representation – the map.

• This means that cartography is the

whole process of mapping.
 Geographic Cartography
• Distinct from other branches of cartography in that
– it alone is the tool and product of the geographer.
– understands the spatial perspective of the
physical environment and has the skills to
abstract and symbolize this environment.
– skilful in map projection, selection & the
mapping and understanding of areal relationships,
and
– has a thorough knowledge of the importance of
scale to the final presentation of spatial data
– is capable of “unravelling” or revising the
process, that is, geographic cartographers are
very adept at map reading
 Concept…Cont’d
• Cartography is a complex, an ever-
changing field, but at the center of it is the
map-making process.

• Viewed in the broadest sense, this process

includes everything from the gathering,
evaluation and processing of source data,
through the intellectual and graphical
design of the map, to the drawing and
reproduction of the final document.
 Cont’d
• As such, it is a unique mixture of
science, art and technology and calls for
a variety of in-depth knowledge and
skills on the part of the cartographer.
• Sometimes one person directs this
entire sequence of cartographic
activities, but this occurs only in
relatively simple cases. In the creation
of a map, it is much more common for
the various tasks to be split up and
accomplished by several individuals
 Two essential
characteristics:
1. Importance:
Humanity faces severe problems, many
of them environmental in nature, and
effective mapping is crucial if solutions
are to be found. In conjunction with the
great data gathering capabilities and
analytical power of remote sensing and
geographic information systems (GIS),
cartography, in many instances, provides
the key to finding solutions.
 Cont’d…
2. Dynamism:
• The cartographic discipline is in the
throes of a revolution, brought about
in large measure by advances in
technology and, in particular, by the
impact of the computer.
 Cont’d
• Map-making has always been affected
by technological change, but the recent
transformation of cartography has been
unprecedented in scope compared with
previous evolutionary changes.
• While former pen and ink techniques for
map-making are still found in isolated
use, today’s cartographer is more likely
to be found seated at a terminal using
the very latest in computer hardware
and graphic software.
 Cont’d
• In most cases, without any loss in
image quality, maps are generated
faster with less cost than before, not
to mention with even more
enjoyment for the map-maker! In
essence, the computer equips the
cartographer with unparalleled
control over the mapping process.
Geographers are the primary
users of map
Map

Environmenta Cognitive Mapping

l sciences sciences science
 A cartographer must
• Be familiar with all mapping activities
(Geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry,
remote sensing, and GIS)

• Know a lot about human thought and

communication(cognitive science ) and
the disciplines associated with the
environmental features being mapped
 Cartographic science
• Geodesy,
• Surveying,
• Photogrammetry,
• Remote sensing,
• Geographic information systems (GIS),
• Global positioning systems (GPS) and,
• of course, Mathematics and Statistics.
 Forms of representation

1.Literacy:
2.Articulacy:
3.Numeracy:
4.Graphicacy
 Graphicay
• Graphicacy is defined as the ability
to understand and present
information in the form of sketches,
photographs, diagrams, maps, plans,
charts, graphs and other non-textual,
two-dimensional formats
 Purposes of maps
• Store geographic information
• Serve mobility and navigation purpose
• Analytical purpose e.g. Measuring and
computing
• Summarize statistical data to assist
forecasting an spotting trend
• Visualize invisible
• Stimulate spatial thinking
 Purpose…cont’d
• Reducing the spatial characteristics of a
large area and putting it in map form to
make it observable
• A map is carefully designed instruments
for recording, calculating, displaying,
analyzing, and understanding, the
interrelation of things
• Its most fundamental function is to bring
the things into view
 Scope of cartography
Map maker

data Map

Map User
 Process in cartography
• Collecting and selecting data for mapping
• Manipulating and generalizing the data
• Designing and constructing the map
• Reading or viewing the map
• Responding to or interpreting the information
Basic characteristics of map
• Location in two dimensional space
• Attributes- qualities or magnitude
• Examples:
– Relationship among locations
– Relationship among various attributes at
once location e.g. Temperature, rainfall and
soil
– Relationships among the location of the
attributes of a given distribution e.g. Rainfall
– Relationships among the location of derived
or combined attributes of given distribution
e.g. Relation of GDP and population
 Charac… cont’d
• All geographic maps are reduction
– Scale
• All maps involves geometrical
transformation
• All maps are abstraction of reality
• All maps are signs to stand for
elements of reality
– Symbolism
 Emphasis on cartographic
representation
• The principal task of cartography is
to communicate environmental
information
• The emphasis on cartographic
representation is map effectiveness
in thought and communication
• This is the best achieved by treating
the making and using of map equally
 The thematic map effectiveness
Symbolizatio
analysis
Simplification
n

Map Inter
Classificati Map
Map effective pret
on making use
ness ation

Selection
Exaggeration
Reading
 Information Selection
Transformation
Census Classification
Ground survey Reading
Remote sensing Simplification
Exaggeration Analyzing
Compilation
Interpreting
Symbolization

Recognized
Geographica Geographical
Map
Map Image
l Env’t Information

Transform 1 Transform 2 Transform 3

A MODEL OF MAP COMMUNICATION
Cartographic communication
 Cartographer’s Dilemma
• All maps introduce distortion:
– shape (conformance)
– size (equivalence)
– direction
– distance
• Maps can be either equivalent or
conformal, but cannot emphasize
both characteristics.
CLASSIFICATION OF
KINDS OF MAPS
Map scale and its effect on mapped earth area, map
information, and symbolization.
2. Coordinate Systems and
Map Projection
 Coordinate systems
• A coordinate system is a reference
system used to represent the
locations of geographic features,
imagery, and observations such as
GPS locations within a common
geographic framework.
• Coordinate systems enable
geographic datasets to use common
locations for integration.
Type of Coordinate systems
1. A global or spherical coordinate system such as
latitude-longitude. These are often referred to as
geographic coordinate systems.
2. A projected coordinate system based on a map
projection such as transverse Mercator, Albers
equal area, or Robinson, all of which (along with
numerous other map projection models) provide
various mechanisms to project maps of the
earth's spherical surface onto a two-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate plane.
– Projected coordinate systems are sometimes referred
to as map projections.
The map grid
• Imaginary lines
crossing the globe
• Meridian lines are
drawn north-south
• Parallel lines are
drawn east-west
• Where the lines
cross is a
coordinate point
 1. Geographic coordinate
system
• A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses
a three-dimensional spherical surface
to define locations on the earth.
• A GCS includes an angular unit of
measure, a prime meridian, and a datum
(based on a spheroid).
• A point is referenced by its longitude and
latitude values.
• Longitude and latitude are angles
measured from the earth's center to a point
on the earth's surface. The angles often are
measured in degrees (or in grads).
 GCS…cont’d
• In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east–
west lines, are lines of equal latitude, or parallels.
• Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are lines of
equal longitude, or meridians. These lines
encompass the globe and form a gridded network
called a graticule.
• Latitude lines run east-west and are parallel.
• Longitude lines run north-south.
• Lines are numbered in degrees, minutes and
seconds, like reading a clock.
• Why degrees? Because angles are always
measured in degrees.
Latitude-Longitude
 2. Projected Coordinate
system(UTM)
• On a global map, UTM lines are
straight.
• UTM is a type of projection, calculated
to make a flat map of the round Earth.
• UTM zones are numbered east to west
and lettered north to south.
• Each zone is equivalent to 6o.
• The measurement unit is meters.
UTM
 Map Projections
• Mathematical method for
systematically transforming a 3-D
earth into a 2-D map.
• Three traditional types:
– cyllindrical
– conical
– planar (azimuthal-zenithal)
• Newer Mathematical Projections
– Robinson
 Each coordinate system is
defined by
• Its measurement framework which is
either geographic (in which spherical
coordinates are measured from the earth's
center) or planimetric (in which the earth's
coordinates are projected onto a two-
dimensional planar surface).

• Unit of measurement (typically meters for

projected coordinate systems or decimal
degrees for latitude-longitude).
 Coordinate system…cont’d
• The definition of the map projection
for projected coordinate systems.
• Other measurement system
properties such as a spheroid of
reference, a datum, and projection
parameters like one or more
standard parallels, a central
meridian, and possible shifts in the x-
and y-directions.
2.4 Map projection
2.4.1 Process of Map projection
2.4.2 Classification of Map Projection
Cylindrical Projection
Conical Map Projection
Azimuthal Projection
Conventional Projection
2.4.3 Suitability and Aspects of Map Projection
 2.4.1 Process of Map Projection
• the process of map projection is accomplished in
three specific steps:
a) ellipsoidal or spherical surfaces are used to represent
the surface of the Earth.
b) curved reference surfaces are then projected on a map
formed into a cylinder, cone or flat plane reduced in
size.
C) each point on the reference surface of the Earth with
geographic coordinates may be transformed to set of
Cartesian coordinates or map coordinates representing
positions on the map plane.
– The systematic transformation of curved surfaces into
flat plane is called map projection.
The process of representing the Earth on a flat
• Hundreds of map projections are developed
in order to accurately represent a particular
map or to best suit a particular type of map.
• Map projections are typically classified
according to the geometric surface from
which they are derived: cylinder, cone or
plane.
• The three classes of map projections are
respectively cylindrical, conical and
azimuthal.
• A map projection is a mathematically
described technique of how to represent the
Earth’s curved surface on a flat map.
• The reference surface for large-scale
mapping is usually an oblate ellipsoid, and
for small-scale mapping, a sphere.
• Mapping onto a 2D mapping plane means
transforming each point on the reference
surface with geographic coordinates (f,l) to a
set of Cartesian coordinates (x,y) representing
positions on the map plane (figure below).
Example of a map projection where the reference surface with
 2.4.2 Classification of map projections
• Map projections can be described in terms of
their:
• class (cylindrical, conical or azimuthal),
• point of secancy (tangent or secant),
• aspect (normal, transverse or oblique), and
• distortion property (equivalent, equidistant
or conformal).
i. Classes of map projections
– Cylindrical, conical and azimuthal.
– The Earth's reference surface projected on a
map wrapped around the globe as a cylinder
produces a cylindrical map projection.
– Projected on a map formed into a cone gives a
conical map projection.
– When projected directly onto the mapping plane
it produces an azimuthal (or zenithal or planar)
map projection.
– The figure below shows the surfaces involved in
these three classes of projections.
The three classes of map projections: cylindrical, conical and
azimuthal. The projection planes are respectively a cylinder, cone
and plane.
ii. Point of secancy (tangent or secant),
– The planar, conical, and cylindrical surfaces in the
figure above are all tangent surfaces; they touch the
horizontal reference surface in one point (plane) or
along a closed line (cone and cylinder) only.
– Another class of projections is obtained if the surfaces
are chosen to be secant to (to intersect with) the
horizontal reference surface; illustrations are in the
figure below.
– the reference surface is intersected along one closed
line (plane) or two closed lines (cone and cylinder).
– Secant map surfaces are used to reduce or average
scale errors because the line(s) of intersection are
not distorted on the map.
Three secant projection classes
– A method to calculate the lines of intersection in a
normal conical or cylindrical projection (i.e.
standard parallels) could be by determining the
range in latitude in degrees north to south and
dividing this range by six.
– The “one-sixth rule” places the first standard
parallel at one-sixth the range above the southern
boundary and the second standard parallel minus
one-sixth the range below the northern limit
(figure below).
– There are other possible approaches
A conical projection with a secant projection plane. The lines of
intersection (standard parallels) are selected at one-sixth below
and above the limit of the mapping area.
iii. Aspect (normal, transverse or oblique)
– Projections can also be described in terms of the
direction of the projection plane's orientation
(whether cylinder, plane or cone) with respect to the
globe. This is called the aspect of a map projection.
– The three possible apects are normal, transverse and
oblique.
– In a normal projection, the main orientation of the
projection surface is parallel to the Earth's axis (as in
the figures above for the cylinder and the cone).
– A transverse projection has its main orientation
perpendicular to the Earth's axis.
– Oblique projections are all other, non-parallel and
non-perpendicular, cases. The figure below provides
two examples.
A transverse and an oblique map projection.
• The terms polar and equatorial are also used.
In a polar azimuthal projection the projection
surface is tangent or secant at the pole.
• In an equatorial azimuthal or equatorial
cylindrical projection, the projection surface is
tangent or secant at the equator.
iv. distortion property (equivalent, equidistant
or conformal)
– The distortion properties of map are typically
classified according to what is not distorted on the
map:
– In a conformal (orthomorphic) map projection the
angles between lines in the map are identical to
the angles between the original lines on the
curved reference surface. This means that angles
(with short sides) and shapes (of small areas) are
shown correctly on the map.
• In an equal-area (equivalent) map projection the
areas in the map are identical to the areas on the
curved reference surface (taking into account the
map scale), which means that areas are
represented correctly on the map.
• In an equidistant map projection the length of
particular lines in the map are the same as the
length of the original lines on the curved
reference surface (taking into account the map
scale).
• A particular map projection can have any one of
these three properties. No map projection can
be both conformal and equal-area.
• A projection can only be equidistant (true to
scale) at certain places or in certain directions.
V) Name of Inventor
• Another descriptor of a map projection might
be the name of the inventor (or first publisher)
of the projection, such as Mercator, Lambert,
Robinson, Cassini etc., but these names are not
very helpful because sometimes one person
developed several projections, or several
people have developed similar projections.
• For example J.H.Lambert described half a
dozen projections. Any of these might be called
'Lambert's projection', but each need
additional description to be recognized.
• Based on these discussions, a particular map
projection can be classified.
• An example would be the classification ‘conformal
conic projection with two standard parallels’
having the meaning that the projection is a
conformal map projection, that the intermediate
surface is a cone, and that the cone intersects the
ellipsoid (or sphere) along two parallels; i.e. the
cone is secant and the cone’s symmetry axis is
parallel to the rotation axis.
• This would amount to the projection of the figure
above (conical projection with a secant projection
plane).
• Other examples are:
– Polar stereographic azimuthal projection with
secant projection plane;
– Lambert conformal conic projection with two
standard parallels;
– Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection with
equidistant equator;
– Transverse Mercator projection with secant
projection plane.
 Construction of Map Projection
• In the Construction of map projection both
graphical and trigonmetrical methods may be
followed.
• The graphic is based on the elementary principles
of geometry, and simpler and approximately
accurate.
• The trignometrical method makes use of
geometry and mathematical methods (eg.
mathematical tables are used in the case of
Mercator's and Mollweide’s projection) to
calculate the radii and length of parallels and also
their distances from the equator.
 2.4.2.1 Cylindrical projection
• A cylindrical projection is produced by wrapping a cylinder
around a globe representing the Earth.
• The map projection is the image of the globe projected onto
the cylindrical surface, which is then unwrapped into a flat
surface.
• When the cylinder aligns with the polar axis, parallels appear
as horizontal lines and meridians as vertical lines.
• General characteristics
– Lines of latitude and longitude are parallel
intersecting at 90 degrees,
– Meridians are equidistant,
– Forms a rectangular map,
– Scale along the equator or standard parallels (lines
of tangency) is true,
– Can have the properties of equidistance,
conformality or equal area,
– The poles are represented as lines
 Cylindrical Map Types
1. Tangent to great circle:
• the cylinder’s circumference touches the
reference globe’s surface along a great circle (any
circle having the same diameter as the sphere
and thus dividing it into two equal halves).
• The diameter of the cylinder is equal to the
diameter of the globe.
• The tangent line is the equator for the equatorial
or normal aspect; while in the transverse aspect,
the cylinder is tangent along a chosen meridian
(i.e. central meridian).
• The tangent and secant lines are important since scale is
constant along these lines (equals that of the globe), and
therefore there is no distortion (scale factor = 1).
• Such lines of true scale are called standard lines. These are lines
of equidistance.
• Distortion increases by moving away from standard lines.
2. Secant case
• In the secant case, the cylinder intersects the
globe; that is the diameter of the cylinder is
smaller than the globe’s.
• At the place where the cylinder cuts through
the globe two secant lines are formed. Secant
projections are more accurate because
projection is more accurate the closer the
projection surface is to the globe and when
the projection surface touches twice, that
means it is on average closer to the globe
3. Transverse cyclindrical projections:
• in this type the cylinder is turned on its side so it
touches a line of longitude; these can also be
tangent
• Some widely used cylindrical map projections
are
– Equidistant cylindrical projection
– Equal-area cylindrical projection
– Mercator projection
– Miller projection
– Plate Carrée projection
– Universal transverse Mercator projection
– Gall's stereographic cylindrical projection
Cylindrical Equidistant projection:
• The equidistant cylindrical projection, also called simple
cylindrical, or Plate Carrée, has a true scale along all
meridians (i.e. no distortion in north-south direction).
• Meridians are spaced at the same distances as the
parallels, forming a grid of equal rectangles.
• Both shape and area are reasonably well preserved with
the exception of the polar regions.
• Used for simple portrayals of the world or regions with
minimal geographic data such as index maps.
• Google Earth uses the equidistant cylindrical (or simple
cylindrical) projection for the display of its imagery base.
• The transverse version of this projection is known as the
Cassini projection.
The equidistant cylindrical projection (also called Plate Carrée projection).
The map is equidistant (true to scale) along the meridians (in north-south
direction).
Procedure for drawing
• Identify the scale of the map
eg. 1: 400, 000,000
• Take the radius of the earth (R) - 637, 000,000 cm
• Calculate the radius of the globe/ map (r)
= 1:400,000,000 x 637, 000,000 cm
= 1.6 cm
• Find the length of the latitudes - 2πr
=2x3.14x1.6=10 cm
• Find the length of meridians – πr
=3.14x 5 cm)
• Find the spacing between parallels
= πr x lat. Interval/1800
=3.14x1.6 x 300/1800
=0.84 cm
• Find the spacing between meridians
=2πr x lat. interval/3600
= 2x3.14x 1.6x 300/3600
= 0.84cm
Cylindrical equal-area projection
• represents areas correctly, but it does have rather
noticeable shape distortions towards the poles.
• Meridians are equally spaced.
• Parallels are unequally spaced and farthest apart near
the equator (opposite to the Mercator projection).
• Because of the distortions it is of little use for world
maps.
• The Mollweide projection, a pseudo-cylindrical equal-area
projection, would be a better choice for this purpose.
• The Gall-Peters projection is a version of Lambert's
projection, but with standard parallels at 45 degrees North
and South, and also the Behrmann projection, but with
standard parallels at 30 degrees North and South.
Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection. The shape
distortions are significant towards the polar regions.
Procedure for drawing
• Identify the scale of the map
eg. 1: 400, 000,000
• Take the radius of the earth (R) - 637, 000,000 cm
• Calculate the radius of the globe/ map (r)
= 1:400,000,000 x 637, 000,000 cm
= 1.6 cm
• Find the length of the latitudes - 2πr
=2x3.14x1.6=10 cm
• Find the length of meridians – 2r
= 2x 1.6 cm
• Find the spacing the parallels from the equator - R sin lat(ⱷ)
= 1.6 sin 300 ( ---cm )
= 1.6 sin 600 ( ---cm )
= 1.6 sin 900 ( ---cm )
• Find the spacing between meridians
=2πr x lat. interval/3600
= 2x3.14x 1.6x 300/3600
= 0.84cm
Mercator projection
• Conformal
• Parallels and meridians are straight lines intersecting
at right angles
• Parallels unequally spaced, distance increases away
from equator
• Meridians are equally spaced
• Loxodromes or rhumb lines are straight (all straight
lines on the map are lines of constant azimuth)
• The image of the poles are at infinity
• Used for navigation and regions near equator.
Invented in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator graphically
 Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection with a conformal property.
The loxodromes in black are straight lines. The great circle lines (orthodromes)
in blue are curved.
Procedure for drawing
• Identify the scale of the map
eg. 1: 400, 000,000
• Take the radius of the earth (R) - 637, 000,000 cm
• Calculate the radius of the globe/ map (r)
= 1:400,000,000 x 637, 000,000 cm
= 1.6 cm
• Find the distance of the latitudes from the equator – 2.3026 r log 10 tan
(45 +ⱷ/2)
= 2.3026 x 1.6 log 10 tan (45 +300/2) =
= 2.3026 x 1.6 log 10 tan (45 +600/2) =
= 2.3026 x 1.6 log 10 tan (45 +900/2) =
• Find the spacing between meridians
=2πr x lat. interval/3600
= 2x3.14x 1.6x 300/3600
= 0.84cm
 2.4.2.2 Conic projections
• In conical or conic projections, the reference
spherical surface is projected onto a cone
placed over the globe.
• The cone is cut lengthwise and unwrapped to
form a flat map.
Tangent vs. secant conical projection
• The cone may be either tangent to the reference
surface along a small circle (any circle on the globe
with a diameter less than the sphere’s diameter) or it
may cut through the globe and be secant (intersect)
at two small circles.
• For the polar or normal aspect, the cone is
tangent along a parallel of latitude or is
secant at two parallels. These parallels are
called standard parallels.
• This aspect produces a map with meridians
radiating out as straight lines from the cone’s
apex, and parallels drawn as concentric arcs
perpendicular to meridians.
• Scale is true (scale factor = 1) and there is no
distortion along standard parallels. Distortion
increases by moving away from standard
parallels.
• Features appear smaller between secant
parallels and appear larger outside these
parallels.
• Secant projections lead to less overall map
distortion.
Conical aspect – equatorial (normal), transverse,
oblique
• The polar aspect is the normal aspect of the
conic projection.
• In this aspect the cone’s apex is situated along
the polar axis of the Earth, and the cone is
tangent along a single parallel of latitude or
secant at two parallels.
• The cone can be situated over the North or South
Pole.
• The polar conic projections are most suitable for
maps of mid-latitude (temperate zones) regions
with an east-west orientation such as the United
States.
• In transverse aspect of conical projections,
the axis of the cone is along a line through the
equatorial plane (perpendicular to Earth’s
polar axis).
• Oblique aspect has an orientation between
transverse and polar aspects. Transverse and
oblique aspects are seldom used.
• Examples of conic projections include
Equidistant Conic projections, Lambert
Conformal Conic and Albers Equal Area Conic,.
General characteristics of Conical Projection
• Parallels are arcs of circles which are concentric in
most of the projections,
• The central meridian is straight line and others are
either straight lines or curves,
• The pole is represented as an arc or a point
• Distance between meridians decreases towards the
poles,
• Scale along the standard parallel(s) is true,
• Can have the properties of equidistance, coformality
or equal area
Equidistant or simple conic projection
• This projection was developed by De l'Isle. French
cartographer.
• The simple conic projection is a normal conical
projection with one standard parallel.
• All circular parallels are spaced evenly along the
meridians, which creates a true scale along all
meridians (i.e. no distortion in north-south
direction).
• Compromise different properties,
• Direction, area and shape are distorted away
from standard parallels ,
• Equidistant meridians converging at a common
point ,
• The pole is again projected to an arc, and
parallels are concentric circles centred on the
cone's vertex.
• The map is therefore equidistant along the
meridians.
• It was used for field sheets and some charts of
small areas in the 19th century.
• Whereas small countries are possibly shown on
this projection, larger areas, such as Russia or
Europe are better portrayed on the conic
projection with two standard parallels.
Simple conic (or equidistant conic) projection (standard
parallel 15 degrees North). The meridians are true to scale.
 Construction of Conical projection with one
standard parallel
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth (r)=
• Radius of the standard parallel ( r)- r cotⱷ
• Length of the standard parallel = 2πr cosⱷ
• Spacing of meridians along the standard parallel
= 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
360
• Spacing of parallels along the central meridian
= πr x lat. Interval
180
NB, meridian interval = 300
latitudinal interval = 300
Standard parallel = 450 N
Conical projection with two standard parallels
• The added parallel decreases the overall distance from
the surface of the sphere to the projection cone, which
acts to reduce scale deformation.
• Since part of the cone passes inside the sphere, the
result is in some areas a compressions.
• Areas north of the higher standard and south of the
lower will be enlarged (on the northern hemisphere)
while areas in between are compressed.
• This projection bears many similarities to the single
standard version on first glance.
• The pole is again projected to an arc, and parallels are
concentric circles centred on the cone's vertex.
• The meridians converge towards to cone's
vertex, stopping at the polar arc (where φ= 90°).
• Drawing out the graticule with equal angular
spacing's in both directions we see that all
parallels cross at right angles.
• Meridian scale is again conserved, but since the
pole if projected to an arc, the parallel scale
cannot possibly be constant (or everywhere
finite).
• Therefore, by the same steps as in the single
standard case, neither area nor shape is
conserved on the map as a whole.
• However, as usual, both are conserved along the
lines of contact, each of the standard parallels.
 Construction of Conical projection with one standard parallel
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radii of the standard parallels=
– arc distance b/n ⱷ1-ⱷ2
– 2πr (ⱷ1-ⱷ2)
360
- Spacing of meridians at the standard parallel
2πr cosⱷ1 x long. Interval
360
2πr cosⱷ2 x long. Interval
360
draw a line representing the positions of ⱷ1-ⱷ2

• Spacing of meridians along the standard parallels

= 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
360
• Spacing of parallels along the central meridian
= πr x lat. Interval
180
• NB use graphic method or similar triangle formula to find the radius of the
standard parallels
 Pseudo-conical projections
• are projections in which the meridians are
represented by curves, and the parallels are
equally spaced concentric circular arcs.
• The central meridian is the only meridian
that is straight.
• Examples are the Bonne and Werner
projection.
Bonne's projection
• Invented by Rigober Bonne (1727-1795),
• Modified conical projection with one standard
parallel
• Parallels are concentric arcs of circles
• Parallels are correctly divided for spacing
meridians. Thus, scale along parallels is correct
• Pole is represented as a point,
• The central meridian is a straight line and
correct to scale. Other meridians are curves and
longer than their actual length on the globe.
• is a pseudo-conical equal-area projection,
with every parallel true to scale (similar to the
polyconic projection).
• The projection was once popular for large-
scale topographic maps and to map the
different continents.
• The Werner projection is a variant of Bonne's
projection with the standard parallel at the
North or South pole.
Bonne's projection (standard parallel 60 degrees
North), with true scale along each parallel.
 Construction of Bonne’s projection
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the standard parallel ( r)- r cotⱷ
• Length of the standard parallel = 2πr cosⱷ
• Spacing of meridians along each parallel
= 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
360
lat. 00 =2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
360
lat. 30 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
0=

360
lat. 600 =2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
360

• Spacing of parallels along the central meridian

= πr x lat. Interval
180
NB, meridian interval = 300
latitudinal interval = 300
standard parallel =450
 Polyconic projection
• The projection is a derivation from the simple
conic projection, but with every parallel true to
scale (similar to the Bonne's equal-area
projection).
• The polyconic projection is neither conformal
nor equal-area.
• The polyconic projection is projected onto
cones tangent to each parallel, so the
meridians are curved, not straight.
• The scale is true along the central meridian
and along each parallel. The distortion increase
rapidly away from the central meridian.
• Parallels are arcs drawn from different centers,
• Each parallel is projected as standard parallel, i.e.,
each parallel is developed from different cones
(policonic),
• Equator is represented as straight line,
• Pole is represented by a point,
• Parallels are equally spaced only along the central
meridian,
• Parallels are correctly divided for spacing the
meridians. Thus scale is correct along every parallel.
• Highly exaggerated in the eastern and western
margins.
• Suitable for small area.
• Used for preparation of topo-sheet of smaller areas
Polyconic projection, with true scale along
each parallel.
 Construction of polyconic projection
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Spacing of parallels along the central meridian
= πr x lat. Interval
180
• Radius of the each parallel ( r)- r cotⱷ
00 - r cotⱷ (00 ) =
300 - r cotⱷ (300 ) =
600 - r cotⱷ (600 ) =
900- r cotⱷ (900 ) =
• Spacing of meridians along each parallel
= 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
360
lat. 0 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
0=

360
lat. 30 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
0=

360
lat. 60 2πr cosⱷ x long. Interval
0=

360

NB, meridian interval = 300

latitudinal interval = 300
 International Map Projection ( Modified Polyconic
Projection)
• A modification of the classic polyconic projection by
Charles Lallemand was used in the International Map
of the World series, a set of separate sheets in the
1 : 1,000,000 scale, to show the whole world on
separate sheets.
• In 1891 the Fifth International Geographical Congress
agreed on the development of a world-wide,
1:1,000,000 (or 1:1 million) scale series of maps. This
was to be called the International Map of the World
( IMW ).
• The maps were to be produced using an internationally
agreed, consistent specification. Roads were depicted
in red, towns and railways in black, and the labels were
written in the Roman alphabet.
• For several reasons the development of the
IMW maps was slow – reasons included two
World Wars, the Great Depression and lack
of funding and expertise in poorer countries.
• International interest waned and by the 1980s
only 800-1000 of the proposed 2500 maps
were completed. The project was abandoned
by the mid-1980s.
• However, the indexing system for sheets is
still used today in other projects.
Map numbering system of 1:1,000,000 sheet
• The enduring legacy of the IMW series is its map numbering
conventions.
• Separate sheets each on the scale of 1: 1,000,000 are prepared
according to a defined scheme agreed upon at a meeting of the
International map committee held at London in 1909.
• All of the sheets have different Index Number based on latitudinal
and longitudinal extent.
– Between 600 N and 600 S, each sheet has a coverage of 4°
latitude and 60 longitude.
– Between 600-760 N and S, each sheet covers 40 latitude and 120
longitude. The doubling of the longitudinal extent is because of
the shortening of distances between the meridians towards the
poles.
– the area between 760-880 N and S covers 40 latitude and 240
longitude.
– The area between 880-900 N and S is covered by one toposheet
each for the two hemispheres.
– A total of 2500 sheets were prepared to cover the entire world.
– The prefix N to every sheet of the northern hemisphere and
S for sheets in the south hemisphere were used.
– N or S prefixes are followed by alphabets A,B,C-----V to
represent each sheet with 40 latitude interval. Eg A for the
sheet covering 0-40 N latitude, B for the sheet covering 4-
80N latitude, ……. And V for the sheet covering 84-880 N.
– Each sheet bear a number representing longitudinal extent.
For areas between the latitudes 60° N and S is numbered 1
to 60 each with 60 interval (360/6=60).
– The number 1 starts from 1800- 1760 w and ends at 1760-
1800E with number 60.
– Example, NB-37 sheet represents ( N indicates North
hemisphere, B indicates areas between 40-80 N, and 37
indicates 360 E – 420 E (1800 + 420 = 37)
60
– Each sheet number is followed with known places of the
area it represent. Eg., NB-37 Awassa.
Construction of 1:1,000,000 sheet
• All parallels are non-concentric circular arcs, with
curvature identical to the classic polyconic's.
• every parallel is a standard parallel. Hence, adjacent
sheets fit north to south,
• Meridians are straight lines converging to the pole
of the hemisphere.
• Each sheet has two meridians correct to the scale,
which are 20 away from the central meridian ,
resulting in reduced scale errors.
• The scale is correct along the bounding parallel and
the two standard meridians—it contracts between
these meridians and expands outside them.
International modified polyconic projection.
• The length of meridians are mathematically driven
Latitude Corrected length (MM)
0-40 442.00
4-80 442.04
8-120 442.14
12-160 442.28
16-200 442.45
20-240 442.67
24-280 442.91
28-320 443.19
32-360 443.50
36-400 443.81
40-440 444.14
44-480 444.47
48-520 444.81
52-560 445.13
56-600 445.44
• Coordinates of the intersections of the parallels and meridians
(MM)
Longitude from the Central meridian
Latitude Coordinate 10 20 30
00 x 111.32 222.64 333.96

y 0.00 0.00 0.00

40 X 111.05 222.10 333.16

y 0.07 0.27 0.61

80 X 110.25 220.49 330.74

y 0.13 0.54 1.21

120 x

160 X

200 X

240 X

y
 The 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Maps
• The 1: 25,000 sheets are derived from the 1: 1,000,000
sheet.
• Based on convention, there are 16 individual 1:250,000
scale maps in an IMW zone. These are numbered 1–16 in
a regular pattern.
• This is added to the IMW zone number and another
unique number is created.
• Each sheet covers 10 latitude and 10 30’ longitude.
• In the case of the NB-37 IMW map sheet there are sixteen
1: 250,000 sheets.
NB 37-1( 4-50 N and 36-37030’ ) NB37-2------ NB37-3------- NB37-4----------
NB37-5 (5-60 N and 36-37030’ ) NB37-6------ NB37-7------- NB37-8------------
NB37-9 (6-70 N and 36-37030’ ) NB37-10----- NB37-11------ NB37-12----------
NB37-13(7-80 N and 36-37030’) NB37-14------ NB37-15------ NB37-
16-----------
SHEET/UNIT INDEX SHEET/UNIT NAME PUBLISHED PAPER
NA 37-02 SOLOLO 1979 $59.00
NA 37-03 MOYALE 1979 $59.00
NB 36-03 TORI 1979 $59.00
NB 36-04 GECHA 1997 $59.00
NB 36-08 MAJI 1979 $59.00
NB 36-12 CHIDO 1997 $59.00
NB 37-01 JIMA 1997 $59.00
NB 37-02 HOSAINA 1997 $59.00
NB 37-03 ASELA 1995 $59.00
NB 37-04 GINNIR 2002 $59.00
NB 37-05 SAWLA / DIME 1994 $59.00
NB 37-06 DILA 1996 $59.00
NB 37-07 DODOLA (GOBA) 1999 $59.00
NB 37-08 MAGALO 2003 $59.00
 Numbering Other Scale Topographic Maps
• Similar principles of a unique numbering system
which had been developed for the 1:250,000
scale series topographic maps were also
developed for the 1:100,000, 1:50:000, 1:25,000
scale series topographic maps.
• The 1:100,000 scale topographic maps were
nested within the IMW system.
• There are six 1:100,000 scale maps contained
within a 1:250,000 scale map.
• Each sheet covers 30’ latitude by 30’ longitude
• In this case the system involved:
– using a two digit number which is sequentially given
to each 1:100,000 scale map West to East
– using a two digit number which is sequentially given
to each 1:100,000 scale map South to North
• This results in a unique 4- digit number for every
1:100,000 map within the system.
• As with the 1:250,000 scale maps having a number
based on the number of IMW zone they are in; so do
the 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 maps. They have a
sequential number added to the number of the
1:100,000 map they occur in.
• Some agencies use systems which are based
on the IMW grid, but they may be slightly
different.
• Also, this regular grid system creates a
number of maps which cover small amounts
of land and large amounts of landless ocean.
Many mapping agencies 'move' the map
boundaries to maximise the amount of land
which is shown.
 The 1: 50, 000 Topographic Sheet
• The 1:50,000 sheets cover 15’ latitude by 15’
longitude.
• The index number is made up of 4 digit figures
( the first two representing latitudinal location
and the remaining two showing longitudinal
location) followed by alphabets and arabic
number - A1, A2, A3, A4, B1,
B2,B3,B4,C1,C2,C3,C4,D1,D2,D3 and D4.
• Eg 0638 C2 Dilla 60-15’-60 30’ N and 38015’-38030’
SERIES NAME MAP TYPE SCALE SHEETS
Ethiopian Mapping Authority
Ethiopia 1:1,000,000 Scale Topographic 1:1,000,00 10
Topographic Maps Maps 0
Ethiopia 1:250,000 Scale Topographic 1:250,000 75
Topographic Maps Maps
Ethiopia 1:50,000 Scale Topographic 1:50,000 1,598
Topographic Maps Maps
 Albers equal-area conic projection
• The Albers equal-area projection uses two standard
parallels.
• Areas are proportional and directions are true in limited
areas.
• Distorts scale and distance except along standard
parallels.
• It represents areas correctly and has reasonable shape
distortions in the region between the standard parallels.
• This projection is best suited for regions predominantly
east-west in extent and located in the middle latitudes.
• Used for small regions or countries but not for
continents.
• It is adapted for maps of the United States, for thematic
maps and for world atlases.
Albers equal-area conic projection (standard parallels 10 and
30 degrees North).

Albert conic equal area

 Lambert-Gauss conformal conic
projection
• Developed by J.H. Lambert in 1772. Harding, Herschel
and Boole had developed it independently in both
spherical and ellipsoidal forms during the 19th century.
• The parallels and meridians intersect at right angles (as
in any conformal projection).
• Areas are inaccurate,
• Conformal and shape is maintained,
• Directions are true in limited areas,
• Today it is often used for air navigation maps.
• Like with other conformal projections, Lambert's
conical is also widely used for topographic maps.
• It is adapted in France and recommended to the
European Commission for conformal pan-European
mapping at scales smaller or equal to 1:500,000.
Lambert Conformal Conic projection (standard parallels 10
and 30 degrees North).
 2.4.2.3 Azimuthal projections
• Azimuthal (zenithal or planar) projections are
made upon a plane tangent or secant to the
reference surface.
• All azimuthal projections possess the property
of maintaining correct azimuths, or true
directions from the centre of the map.
• In the polar cases, the meridians all radiate
out from the pole at their correct angular
distance apart.
• A subdivision may be made into perspective
and non-perspective azimuthal projections.
Perspective Azimutal projections
• In the perspective projections, the actual mapping can
be visualized as a true geometric projection, directly
onto the mapping plane.
• For the gnomonic projection, the perspective point (like
a source of light rays), is the centre of the Earth.
• For the stereographic this point is the opposite pole to
the point of tangency, and
• For the orthographic the perspective point is an infinite
point in space on the opposite side of the Earth.
Non Perspective Azimutal projections
• Two well known non-perspective azimuthal projections
are
– the azimuthal equidistant projection (also called
Postel projection) and
– the Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection.
Three perspective azimuthal projections: Gnomonic,
stereographic and orthographic (source: ESRI).
Stereographic projection:
• The azimuthal stereographic projection is a conformal projection.
• Since the projection is conformal, parallels and meridians intersect
at right angles.
• In the polar aspect the meridians are equally spaced straight lines,
• the parallels are unequally spaced circles centered at the pole.
Spacing gradually increases away from the pole.
• The scale is constant along any circle having its centre at the
projection centre, but increases moderately with distance from the
centre.
• The ellipses of distortion remain circles (indicating conformality).
• Areas increase with distance from the projection center.
• The polar stereographic projection is used in combination with the
UTM coordinate system as Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) for
mapping regions north of 84°N and south of 80°S.
• Recommended for conformal mapping of regions approximately
circular in shape; the Netherlands uses a modified version of the
stereographic projection (Dutch double stereographic) known as
Rijks Driehoekstelsel (RD).
Polar azimuthal stereographic projection is a planar projection
with a conformal property.
Example
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth ( r ) – 637,000,000 x 1/200,000,000
• r = 3.2 cm
• Radius of the each parallel form the pole (r’)- 2r tan ( 900 -
ᶿ )
2

• 00 = 2r tan ( 900 -
ᶿ )
2

• 300 = 2r tan ( 900 -

ᶿ )
2

• 60 0 = 2r tan ( 900 -
ᶿ )
2

NB, meridian interval = 300

latitudinal interval = 300
Orthographic projection
• The orthographic projection is a perspective projection
that views the globe from an infinite distance.
• Distortion in size and area near the projection limit appears
more realistic than almost any other projection.
• In the polar aspect, meridians are straight lines radiating
from the center, and the lines of latitude are projected as
concentric circles that become closer toward the edge of
the globe.
• Only one hemisphere can be shown.
• Google Earth shows the Earth as it looks from an elevated
platform such as an airplane or orbiting satellite. The
projection used to achieve this effect is called the general
perspective. This is similar to the orthographic projection,
except that the point of perspective is a finite (near earth)
distance rather than an infinite (deep space) distance.
Polar azimuthal orthographic projection.
Example
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth ( r ) – 637,000,000 x 1/200,000,000
• r = 3.2 cm
• Radius of the each parallel form the pole (r’)- r cos
ᶿ
• 00 - r cos
ᶿ=
• 300 - r cos
ᶿ=
• 600 - r cos
ᶿ=

NB, meridian interval = 300

latitudinal interval = 300
Gnomonic projection
• The gnomonic projection (also known as central azimuthal
projection) is neither conformal nor equal-area.
• The scale increases rapidly with the distance from the center.
• Area, shape, distance and direction distortions are extreme, but all
great circles (or orthodromes) - the shortest distances between
two places on a sphere - are shown as straight lines.
• It's wise to orient the centre of the map at the point of interest,
since scale distortions increase rapidly away from the centre of the
gnomonic map projection and the direction of the shortest route
(azimuth) is shown by a straight line from the centre of the map
only (this applies to all azimuthal maps).
• The projection is useful for defining routes of navigation for sea
and air travel, because the shortest route between any two
locations is always a straight line (figure below).
• It should however not be used for regular geographic maps or for
distance measurements. An example, the measured distance on the
gnomonic projection between Amsterdam airport and New York
airport is 8415 kilometres, but in reality it is around 5884
kilometres (second figure below).
Air-routes plotted in red on a the gnomonic projection. The
centre of the projection is oriented at Amsterdam airport. The
shortest air-routes - great circle routes - are shown by a straight
line and the directions of the shortest air-routes are true from
Example
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth ( r ) – 637,000,000 x 1/200,000,000
• r = 3.2 cm
• Radius of the each parallel form the pole (r’)- r tan 900 -
ᶿ
• 00 - r tan 900 -
ᶿ =

• 300 - r tan 900 -

ᶿ=
• 600 - r tan 900 - =
ᶿ
NB, meridian interval = 300
latitudinal interval = 300
Azimuthal equidistant projection
• The non-perspective azimuthal equidistant
projection (also known as Postel projection) is an
equidistant projection.
• Distances measured from the centre of the map
to any point are correct; the bearing of any point
from the center is also correct (this applies to all
azimuthal maps).
• Distortion of other properties increases away
from the center point, but are not very large
compared to the distortions of the gnomonic
projection.
• The projection is frequently used to show air-
route distances (figure below).
Air-routes plotted in red on a the azimuthal equidistant projection.
The centre of the projection is oriented at Amsterdam airport to
show correct distances (and directions) from this point to the
Example
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth ( r ) – 637,000,000 x
1/200,000,000
• r = 3.2 cm
• Radius of the each parallel form the pole (r’)- 2πr 900 -
( 360ᶿ)
•
00 - 2πr(900 - ᶿ) =
360

• 300 - 2πr 900 -

( ᶿ)360
=

• 600 - 2πr 900 -

( ᶿ360
)=

NB, meridian interval = 300

latitudinal interval = 300
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection:
• The non-perspective Lambert azimuthal equal-
area projection preserves areas while
simultaneously maintaining a true direction
from the center.
• The general pattern of distortion is radial.
• Scale decreases with distance from the center.
• It is best suited for maps of continents or
regions that are equally extended in all
directions from the centre, such as Asia and the
Pacific ocean.
• Recommended to the European Commission for
statistical analysis and display.
• A variant of this projection is the Hammer-Aitoff
projection.
Polar azimuthal equal-area projection (after
Lambert).`
Example
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth ( r ) – 637,000,000 x 1/200,000,000
• r = 3.2 cm
• Radius of the each parallel form the pole (r’)- √2r ( r-r sin )
ᶿ
• 00 - √2r ( r-r sin )
ᶿ =
• 300 - √2r ( r-r sin )
ᶿ =
• 600 - √2r ( r-r sin ) =
ᶿ

NB, meridian interval = 300

latitudinal interval = 300
2.4.2.5 Pseudo-cylindrical projections
• Pseudo-cylindrical projections are projections in which
the parallels are represented by parallel straight lines,
and the meridians by curves.
• The central meridian is the only meridian that is
straight.
• Examples are Mollweide, Sinusoidal (Sanson-
Flamsteed), Goode Homolosine, McBryde-Thomas
series, Eckert's series (I -VI), Winkel (I, II), Denoyer and
Robinson.
• They are typically used to map the world in its
entirety.
• Most pseudo-cylindrical projections are equal-area
(certainly not conformal because the parallels and
meridians do not always cross at right angles).
Mollweide projection
• The Mollweide projection is a classic equal-
area projection, keeping parallels as straight
lines while still preserving areas.
• All meridians but the central one are
elliptical arcs.
• Suitable for thematic or distribution mapping
of the entire world.
Mollweide's pseudo-cylindrical projection with an equal-
area property.
Robinson Projection
• The Robinson projection is neither conformal
nor equal-area and no point is free of
distortion, but the distortions are very low
within about 45° of the center and along the
Equator and therefore recommended and
frequently used for thematic world maps.
• The projection provides a more realistic view
of the world than rectangular maps such as
the Mercator.
Robinson's pseudo-cylindrical projection. Shapes and
areas are reasonable well preserved.
Interrupted projections
• Interrupted projections show the globe in one
sheet with interrupted forms of graticules.
• They are typically used to map the different
continents or oceans of the world in one
map.
• Examples are Goode's projection (an
interrupted Mollweide projection) or the
interrupted Sanson-Flamsteed projection.
• Interrupted Mollweide projection for
continental masses (after J.P. Goode).
 Sinusoidal Equal Area
• The Sinusoidal Equal Area map projection is considered
a pseudo-cylindrical projection.
• In the Sinusoidal Equal Area projection all parallels and
the central meridian are standard lines.
• All meridians are curved lines.
• This projection compresses shapes in higher latitudes,
but shapes are good in the central section.
• All parallels and the central meridian are at correct
scale; there is also no distortion of the area scale.
• The Sinusoidal Equal Area projection is often used in
areas with a larger north-south than east-west extent.
Interrupted Mollweide projection for continental masses (after J.P.
Goode).
Example
• Scale of the map – 1: 200,000,000
• Radius of the earth (R) – 637,000,000
• Radius of the reduced earth ( r ) – 637,000,000 x 1/200,000,000
• r = 3.2 cm
• Length of parallels= 2πr cos ϴ
• Length of the central meridian = 2πr cos 00
2
• Spacing of meridians along the parallels = 2πr cos ϴ x Long. .Interval
3600
• Spacing of the parallels along the central meridian= 2πr x Latit. Interval
3600
Merits and Limitations of Projections
• No projection is able to accurately show
the correct compass direction, distance,
shape and area of all features depicted
on it.
• Because of this, each projection has
advantages and disadvantages, as well as
serving different purposes and producing
different types of distortions.
• As a general rule maps of local areas have
less distortions than those of larger areas or
the world.
• Many special projections have been
developed to specifically overcome some of
these distortions. For example:
– 'equal-area' projections preserve true areas
– 'conformal' projections preserve true shape
– 'azimuthal' projections preserve true compass
direction from the centre
• As a general rule the best projection to use is
dictated by the map's:
– location (equatorial, polar, or mid latitudes)
– extent/size (world vs regional vs local)
– purpose (distortion may not be an issue, but
keeping equal-areas or true direction may be
important).
• When selecting a projection, map makers
should also consider national conventions and
consistency with other maps of an area
 Map projections overview
a short list of map projections grouped by class:
Projection Description

Cylindrical

Central cylindrical Map projection is perspective but not conformal nor equal area. Projected
perspectively from the center of the Earth onto a cylinder tangent to the
equator. Only used for teaching purposes.
Equidistant Also known as simple cylindrical or Plate Carrée. The projection is
cylindrical equidistant in the direction of the meridians. Parallels and meridians (half
as long as the parallels) are equally spaced straight lines forming square
blocks. This projection maps longitude and latitude directly into x and y,
hence is sometimes called the latitude-longitude projection. In Google
Earth used for display of imagery. The transverse version is known as the
Cassini projection.

Gall-Peters Similar to Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection, but with standard

parallels at 45 degrees North and South.
Lambert It is of little use for world maps because of the distortions. Mainly used for
cylindrical equal- educational purposes.
area
Miller cylindrical Modified Mercator projection proposed by O.M. Miller. Compromise
between Mercator and other cylindrical projections. Shape, area and
scale distortion increases moderately away from the equator. Used in
numerous world maps.

Mollweide Pseudo-cylindrical projection. Map is equal area. Occasionally used in

thematic world maps.
Mercator Conformal map projection. Designed for navigational use; standard for
marine charts. Recommended use for conformal mapping of regions
predominantly bordering the equator. Often inappropriately used as a
world map.

Trasverse Also called Gauss Conformal, or Gauss Krüger. Transverse form

Mercator (transverse cylinder) of the Mercator projection. Used for topographic
maps at scales from 1: 20,000 to 1: 250,000. Recommended for
conformal mapping of regions that are predominantly north-south in
extent.

Universal A version of the Transverse Mercator, but one with a secant map
Transverse surface. It divides the world into 60 narrow longitudinal zones of 6
Mercator (UTM) degrees. Widely used standard for topographic maps and military maps.
Azimuthal

Azimuthal Distances measured from the centre of the map to any point are correct
equidistant and the bearing of any point from the center is correct (this applies to all
azimuthal maps). Commonly used in the polar aspect for maps of polar
regions and the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The oblique
aspect is frequently used for world or air-route maps centered on
important cities and occasionally for maps of continents.

Gnomonic Map is perspective and neither conformal nor equal area. Area, shape,
distance and direction distortions are extreme. It is used to show great
circle paths as straight lines and thus to assist navigators and aviators.

Hammer-Aitoff A variant of Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Used for thematic maps of

the whole world.

Lambert Used for maps of continents and hemispheres. Also suited for regions
azimuthal equal- extending equally in all directions from a center point, such as Asia and
area the Pacific Ocean. Recommended to the European Commission for
statistical analysis and display.
Orthographic Known by Egyptians and Greeks 2000 years ago. Map is perspective and
neither conformal nor equal area. Only one hemisphere can be shown.
The Earth appears as it would on a photograph from space.
Stereographic Apparently invented by Hipparchus (2nd century bc). Used in combination
with UTM projection as Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) for mapping
poles and in navigation charts for latitudes above 80°. Recommended for
conformal mapping of regions that are approximately circular in shape; a
modified version of the stereographic projection is used in the
Netherlands for large-scale and topographic maps.
Conical
Albers equal It is equal to Lambert's equal area conic, but has two standard parallels
area conic (secant cone). Excellent for mid-latitude distribution maps. The projection
does not contain the noticeable distortions of the Lambert projections.
Frequently used for maps of the United States, for thematic maps and for
world atlases.
Lambert Lambert conformal conic, also called conical orthomorphic (Lambert,
conformal 1972). Extensively used for large-scale mapping of regions predominantly
conic east-west in extent. Further widely used for topographic maps.
Polyconic or American polyconic (Hassler, ± 1820). Map is neither conformal nor
equal area, but each parallel is true to scale. The sole projection used for
large scale mapping of the United States by the USGS until the 1950's.
Simple conic Also known as equidistant conic. Meridians are true to scale (i.e. no
distortion in north-south direction). The most common projection in
atlases for small countries.
Other
projections

Sinusoidal Used since 16th century. Also called Sanson-Flamsteed or

Mercator equal area projection. Pseudo-cylindrical
projection. Map is equal area. Used in atlas maps of South
America and Africa. Occasionally used for world maps.
Modifications are called sinusoidal interrupted and
sinusoidal 3x interrupted.

Van der Shows the entire Earth within one circle. All areas, shapes
Grinten and angles are greatly distorted.

Winkel Used in several atlases. A triple compromise of reduced

Tripel shape, area and distance distortion. Selected by the
National Geographic Society (NGS) for its new reference
world map, in place of the Robinson projection.
 Summary of Projection General Use
Topographic Geological Thematic Present Naviga USGS
Projection Type
Maps Maps Maps ations tion Maps
Globe Sphere * *
Mercator Cylindrical * * * *
Transverse
Cylindrical * * *
Mercator
Oblique
Cylindrical * *
Mercator
Space
Oblique Cylindrical * *
Mercator
Miller
Cylindrical * *
Cylindrical
Pseudo-
Robinson * *
cylindrical
Sinusoidal
Pseudo-
Equal * *
cylindrical
Area
Orthographic Azimuthal *
 Topographic Geological Thematic Present Naviga USGS
Projection Type
Maps Maps Maps ations tion Maps
Stereographic Azimuthal * * * *
Gnomonic Azimuthal * *
Azimuthal
Azimuthal * *
Equalidistant
Lambert
Azimuthal Azimuthal * * *
Equal Area
Albers Equal
Conic * * *
Area Conic
Lambert
Conformal Conic * * * * *
Conic
Equidistant
Conic
Conic
Polyonic Conic * *
Biplolar
Oblique Conic Conic * *
Conformal
Map Reading & Interpretation
 Concept
• Much information can be
obtained from maps. Therefore,
any operation requires a supply
of maps; however, the finest
maps available are worthless
unless the map user knows how
to read & interpret them.
 Basic Principles of Map Reading

• In developing map reading abilities and skills, certain

basic principles must be applied by the map-reader to
translate map symbols into landscape images.

• Map Reader must have ideas about the symbol and

also the Real World (Landscapes). This is called
the perception of the symbols and the Real World.

• If these two are correctly revealed, then the

understanding of the map will exactly (correctly)
coincide with the Real World (Landscapes)
 Color codes for map features
• Symbols depicting natural and constructed map features are
usually printed in different colors to provide a more natural
• appearance and color. Each color represents a class of
features. The color codes are as follows:
• Black—the majority of cultural and human-constructed
features
• Blue—water features such as lakes, rivers, and swamps
• Green—vegetation such as woods, vineyards, and orchards
• Brown—the shape and elevation of the topography
• Red—boundary lines, large highways, and special features
• Occasional other colors—special information indicated in the
legend
 Marginal and Border Information
• Title: Subtitle
• Legend
• Maps
• North arrow
• Date
• Authorship
• Scale bars
• Page border
 Measurements on Map
• Scale
• Location
• Distance
• Area
• Direction
Scale
 Location
• Most maps allow us to specify the location of
points on the Earth's surface using a
coordinate system.
• For a two-dimensional map, this coordinate
system can use simple geometric relationships
between the perpendicular axes on a grid
system to define spatial location
 Location…cont’d
• Methods:
– Place names & political or admin
boundaries
– Latitude and longitude
– Grid references
– Compass bearings
Location…cont’d
 Grid lines
• The lines have numbers accompanying them
that allow you to accurately pinpoint your
location on a map.
• Once you have located where you are, the
grid system makes it simple to give others
(such as mountain rescue) an accurate
description of your location.
• This description, which will be a series of
numbers, is known as a grid reference.
 Cont’d
• Before you begin to look at grid references it
is important to be aware that all the numbers
going across the face of the map, for example,
left to right, are called eastings (this is
because they are heading eastward), and
similarly, all the numbers going up the face of
the map from bottom to top are called
northings (again because they are heading in
a northward direction).
Grid…cont’d
 There are two main types of grid
reference:
1. 4-digit – for example, 1945, this indicates a
single kilometer square on an
2. 6-digit – for example, 192454, shows a point
within a square.
 4-digit map references
• When giving a 4-digit grid reference you
should always give the eastings number first
and the northings number second, very much
like when giving the reading of a graph in
school – you must go along the
corridor/hallway (horizontal) and then up the
stairs (vertical).
 4-digit grid reference
• For example, the number
2 in the diagram opposite
is 19 across and 45 up
and therefore the 4-digit
grid reference is 1945.
• The numbered squares
on the diagram above
would have the following
• 4-digit grid references:
1 = 18 45 2 = 19 45
3 = 18 44 4 = 19 44
 6-figure map references
• the square is further divided up into tenths.
 6-digit grid reference
• Using the example
opposite, the grey box
is in the square 1844.
• More accurately it is 7
tenths across and 8
tenths up within the
grid square 1844 and
therefore has the 6-fi
gure map reference
187448.
 Compass Bearing
• Shows the direction of a point with respect to
another point measured clockwise from 0
degree to 360 degree
• Expressed in degree which is further sub-
divided into minutes and seconds
Compass bearing
Finding bearing
Distance
 Methods
• Pair of dividers
• A length of thin string
• Piece of paper
 Pair of dividers
• Procedure:
– Divide the object into short straight distance
– Measure the distance using the pair of divider
– Conversion
– Add
 Length of thin string
• Procedure:
– Measure using the string
– Conversion
 Measurement of area
1. Regular area
– Square, triangle, rectangle
2. Irregular area
– Division method
Tracing Method
Tracing Method
Stripping Method
 Slope Gradient
• The slope or the gradient is commonly used to
describe the measurement of the steepness,
incline, or grade of a straight line.
• The slope is defined as the ratio of the "rise"
divided by the "run" between two points on a
line, or in other words, the ratio of the
altitude change to the horizontal distance
between any two points on the line.
Slope Gradient
Relief representation and cross-
section
 Basic guidelines
1. Marginal information
2. Broad patterns
3. Contouring
4. Drainage pattern
5. Basic landforms
6. Nature of rocks
7. Climate
8. Land use
9. Cultural features
10. Types of settlement
11. Transport and communication
 METHODS OF RELIEF REPRESENTATION

• The earth’s surface is not uniform and it varies

from mountains to hills to plateaus and plains.
The elevation and depressions of the earth’s
surface are known as physical features or
relief features of the earth. The map showing
these features is called a relief map.
 Topographic Features
• Erosional features: Gullies, washes, gorges, valley

• Residual features: plateau, benches, mesas,

escarpment, cliff, terraces
• Deposional features :
• Man made features: Coordinate system, public
land sub division, boundaries, travel and
transportation routes,building and cities, names ,
notes and numbers,
• Biophysical features
 CONTOURS
• Contours are imaginary lines joining places
having the same elevation above mean sea
level. A map showing the landform of an area
by contours is called a contour map. The
method of showing relief features through
contour is very useful and versatile. The
contour lines on a map provide a useful
insight into the topography of an area.
Contour lines
 Interpreting Contour Lines
• Contour lines on a map show topography or
changes in elevation. They reveal the location of
slopes, depressions, ridges, cliffs, height of
mountains and hills, and other topographical
features.
• A contour line is a brown line on a map that
connects all points of the same elevation. They
tend to parallel each other, each approximately
the shape of the one above it and the one below
it
 Contour Characteristics
• Concentric circles of contour lines indicate a hill.
• Evenly spaced contours indicate uniform slope.
• Widely spaced contours indicate a gentle slope.
• Widely spaced contours at the top of a hill
indicate flat hilltop.
• Close together contours indicate steep slope,
wall, or cliff.
• Close together contours at the top of a hill
indicate a pointed hilltop.
• touching contours indicate overhanging cliff.
Topographic features rep.. By contours
 Cont’d
• Jagged, rough contours indicate large outcrops of rocks, cliffs, and
fractured areas.
• “V” shape contours indicate stream beds and narrow valleys with
the point of the “V” pointing uphill or upstream.
• “U” shape contours indicate ridges with the bottom of the “U”
pointing down the ridge.
• A saddle is a ridge between two hills or summits.
• “M” or “W” shape contours indicate upstream from stream
junctions.
• Circles with hachures or hatch lines (short lines extending from the
contour line at right angles) indicate a depression, pit, or sinkhole.
• Spot elevations (height of identifiable features) such as mountain
summits, road intersections, and surfaces of lakes may also be
shown on the map.
Topogrphic Features
 Drawing of Contours and Their Cross
Sections
• We know that all the topographical features
show varying degrees of slopes. For example,
a flat plain exhibits gentler slopes and the
cliffs and gorges are associated with the steep
slopes. Similarly, valleys and mountain ranges
are also characterised by the varying degree
of slopes, i.e. steep to gentle. Hence, the
spacing of contours is significant since it
indicates the slope.
 Types of slope
• The slopes can broadly be classified into
gentle, steep, concave, convex and irregular
or undulating. The contours of different types
of slopes show a distinct spacing pattern.
• Gentle Slope When the degree or angle of
slope of a feature is very low, the slope will be
gentle. The contours representing this type of
slope are far apart.
• Steep Slope When the degree or angle of
slope of a feature is high and the contours are
closely spaced, they indicate steep slope.
• Concave Slope: A slope with a gentle gradient in the
lower parts of a relief feature and steep in its upper
parts is called the concave slope. Contours in this type
of slope are widely spaced in the lower parts and are
closely spaced in the upper parts.
Convex Slope :
• Unlike concave slope, the convex slope is fairly gentle
in the upper part and steep in the lower part. As a
result, the contours are widely spaced in the upper
parts and are closely spaced in the lower parts
• Conical Hill: It rises almost uniformly from the
surrounding land. A conical hill with uniform
slope and narrow top is represented by
concentric contours spaced almost at regular
intervals
• Plateau: A widely stretched flat–topped high
land, with relatively steeper slopes, rising above
the adjoining plain or sea is called a plateau. The
contour lines representing a plateau are normally
close spaced at the margins with the innermost
contour showing wide gap between its two sides
 V’-shaped Valley
• ‘It resembles the letter V. A V-shaped valley
occurs in mountainous areas. The lowermost
part of the V–shaped valley is shown by the
innermost contour line with very small gap
between its two sides and the lowest value of
the contour is assigned to it. The contour
value increases with uniform intervals for all
other contour lines outward.
 ‘U’ – shaped Valley

• A U–shaped valley is formed by strong lateral

erosion of glaciers at high altitudes. The flat wide
bottom and steep sides makes it resemble the
letter ‘U’. The lowermost part of the U–shaped
valley is shown by the innermost contour line
with a wide gap between its two sides. The
contour value increases with uniform intervals
for all other contour lines outward.
• Gorge: In high altitudes, gorges form in the areas
where the vertical erosion by river is more prominent
than the lateral erosion. They are deep and narrow
river valleys with very steep sides. A gorge is
represented by very closely-spaced contour lines on a
map with the innermost contour showing small gap
between its two sides.
• Spur: A tongue of land, projecting from higher ground
into the lower is called a spur. It is also represented by
Vshaped contours but in the reverse manner. The
arms of the V point to the higher ground and the apex
of ‘V’ to the lower ones.
• CLIFF: It is a very steep or almost perpendicular face of
landform. On a map, a cliff may be identified by the
way the contours run very close to one another,
ultimately merging into one.
• Waterfall and Rapids: A sudden and more or less
perpendicular descent of water from a considerable
height in the bed of a river is called a waterfall.
Sometimes, a waterfall succeeds or precedes with a
cascading stream forming rapids upstream or
downstream of a waterfall. The contours representing
a waterfall merge into one another while crossing a
river stream and the rapids are shown by relatively
distant contour lines on a map.
 Topographic Profiles

• A topographic profile is a graph or diagram which

attempts to display the cross-sectional or "cut-
away" view of the land surface topography.
• These types of profiles may be constructed in any
given direction on a topographic map.
• The contour lines contain the information
necessary to construct this type of diagram.
• A topographic profile is a diagram that displays a
side or cutaway view of the Earth's topography.
 vertical exaggeration:
• The vertical scale of the diagram is the scale
used to determine elevations above sea level
for a particular diagram.
• The ratio of this vertical scale to that of the
horizontal scale (map scale) is termed the
vertical exaggeration
 Vertical exaggeration
• The vertical exaggeration enhances the
topographic relief of the map area when it has
a value greater than one; if it is less than one
the profile relief is more subdued as
compared to the actual topographic relief.
• Typically the vertical exaggeration is greater
than one so as to accentuate topographic
features like ridges and river valleys
 Constructing a Topographic Profile
1. Determine the line of the cross section
profile. You will either find this as a straight
line on the map, or will be given instructions
that determine the endpoints of the profile.
Sketch the line, if necessary, onto the base
map with a pencil. Label one end of the
profile line "A", the other end "A' ".
 Cont’d
2. On a page of graph paper draw the profile line horizontally
across the bottom portion of the page. Make sure that the
profile line is exactly the same length as the original profile
line. This insures that the horizontal scale of the profile is
the same as the topographic base map scale. Next,
determine the elevation grid spacing for the profile. This will
already be set if you are instructed to use a specific VE. For
example, if the map scale was 1cm=2000m, and you must
use a VE of 4, then the vertical scale of the profile is
1cm=500m. Therefore, each 0.1cm vertical spacing on the
graph paper represents 50m. Mark off the elevation grid by
drawing horizontal lines above the initial profile line at
intervals representative of the contour interval of the base
map. You may be given a grid already constructed for some
exercises- if so the vertical scale is predetermined.
•
 Cont’d
3. Place a clean sheet of paper edgewise along the
line of profile on the map. Make a pencil mark on
the paper where the profile begins and ends (A
and A' points). In addition, at every place that a
contour line intersects the edge of the paper
make a mark and label that mark with the value
of the contour line. Inspect all of the contour
elevations to determine the lowest and highest
elevation value. The difference between these
values is the relief of the map area along the
profile.
 Cont’d
4. Label the elevation grid lines on the graph paper
starting with the line immediately above the line
of the profile. Its value should be one contour
interval lower than the lowest elevation
encountered in step 3. Label the successively
higher elevation grid lines according to the
contour interval. The last value should be at least
one contour interval above that of the highest
contour elevation encountered in step 3. If it is
not, the vertical scale must be decreased (vertical
exaggeration decreased) and the grid
reconstructed according to the new scale.
 Cont’d
5. Place the paper edgewise along the profile
line of the graph paper making sure that the
"A" point of the paper aligns with that end of
the graph paper "A" point. This will align the
"A' " points also. At each tic mark use a ruler
to mark a point that is vertically above that
point but also on one of the elevation grid
lines that matches the elevation value of that
particular contour line. Do this for all of the
marks made on the paper.
 Cont’d
6. Draw a smooth curve through the points. This
represents the topographic profile surface.
Make sure that the profile surface never
crosses an elevation level not indicated by the
topographic contours of the base map. Also
note that hilltops and the bottom of
depressions and valleys do not come to a
sharp "cusp" in natural profiles but rather
have rounded changes in slope direction.
 Cont’d
7. To further refine the profile one should go back
and record significant cultural and physiographic
features that occur along the line of the profile-
such as rivers, creeks, towns, roads, and the
summit points of hills. It may be necessary in
areas of low slope to interpolate elevation values
between actual contours so as to draw a smooth
curve for the profile. Label the horizontal and
vertical scales in appropriate places on the
profile, and list the vertical exaggeration value in
the margin of the map.
 IDENTIFICATION OF CULTURAL FEATURES
FROM TOPOGRAPHICAL SHEETS
• Settlements, buildings, roads and railways are
important cultural features shown on
topographical sheets through conventional
signs, symbols and colours. The location and
pattern of distribution of different features
help in understanding the area shown on the
map.
 Distribution Of Settlements
• It can be seen in the map through its site,
location pattern, alignment and density. The
nature and causes of various settlement
patterns may be clearly understood by
comparing the settlement map with the
contour map.
 …cont’d
• Four types of rural settlements may be identified on
the map (a) Compact (b) Scattered (c) Linear (d)
Circular
• Similarly, urban centres may also be distinguished as
(a) Cross-road town (b) Nodal point (c) Market centre
(d) Hill station (e) Coastal resort centre (f) Port (g)
Manufacturing centre with suburban villages or
satellite towns (h) Capital town (i) Religious centre
• Various factors determine the site of settlements like
(a) Source of water (b) Provision of food (c) Nature of
relief (d) Nature and character of occupation (e)
Defence
 Graphical representation of thematic
maps, graphs & diagrams
• Thematic maps
• Graphs
• Diagrams
 Thematic map
• Single purpose map
• Displays only one theme
• Used for specific purpose
 Mapping tec.
• Geographers use many methods to create
thematic maps, but four techniques are
especially noted.
1. Choropleth
2. Isopleth
3. Proportional symbol
4. Dot map
 Choropleth
• The most commonly used method of thematic
mapping.
• are great to map phenomena that are evenly
distributed within each enumeration unit (set
area).
Qualitative data – ecosystems
choropleth map
 Isarithmic
• These maps, also known as contour maps,
depict smooth continuous phenomena such as
rainfall, barometric pressure, etc.
• They are also well-suited to displaying three-
dimensional values such as elevation.
 Proportional Symbol:

• Also known as graduated symbols, these maps

represent data associated with point locations
(i.e., cities or counties). The data is displayed
with proportionally sized symbols to
graphically represent a realistic difference in
occurrence.
Quantitative data_ ratio level
Proportional symbol map
 Dot map
• A map using dots to show the presence of a
feature or occurrence and display a spatial
pattern. One dot represents a certain amount
of some phenomenon’s occurrence. One dot
represented one death. One dot, one
occurrence is not a required equation. One
dot may represent any set number of
occurrences.
 Drainage patterns and analysis
• How to read drainage pattern from
topographic maps?
 DRAINAGE
Drainage: is the plan or layout of the river with its
tributaries until it reaches its destination i.e. lake, main
river, swamps or an ocean, therefore the concept
drainage includes rivers , swamps, lakes,
waterfalls ,flood areas
Drainage patterns :Simply means the network
displayed by a river and its tributaries. Drainage of the
river usually posses different network/system
depending on the way how tributaries convey to the
main river and the general appearance, hence drainage
pattern
 I. Dendritic pattern
• Is a pattern in which its tributaries convey (join)
to the main river at an acute angle resembling to
the shape of tree trunk and its branches
• Note: Dendritic pattern are common in areas of
gentle slope and of uniform (homogeneous) rock
hardness. Therefore it can be made from granitic
or metamorphic rock
 II.Trellised pattern;
• Is the pattern in which its tributaries convey or
join to the main river at almost right angle.
• Note:- This type is commonly found in areas
with severe cracks or fractures mostly to the
rocks with an alternate hard and soft rock.
Therefore this is associated with sedimentary
rocks.
 III. Radial pattern;
• Is the pattern or layout in which its tributaries flow
outward from the center.(summit) or at the peaks
of mountains.
• Its pattern resemble a spoken ring of bicycles where
stream flow out in every direction from the center.
Therefore radial drainage pattern is commonly
associated with volcanic mountains /region
composed of granitic rock or igneous rock
 IV. Centripetal Drainage pattern;
• is the pattern in which almost all streams are
following from all direction converging to the
center can be to the swamp, lake or depression.
• The determinant factor of stream flow is a slope .
• Therefore the drainage pattern can be associated
with sedimentary rock.
 V. Rectangular pattern/Drainage;
• Is a pattern which resemble trellised, but it
has tributaries joining the main river at a right
angle. The pattern is common in areas which
are faulted.
• Therefore can be found along sedimentary
rocks/granitic rock or any faulted rock.
 VI. Braided pattern;
• Is the pattern in which its distributaries tend
to split into several channels which rejoin and
split again .
•
 ROCK TYPE/STRUCTURE
• The surface rock on the topographical maps is
not directly indicated. some clues are needed
in order to identify rock type and structure of
the mapped area.
• The following is an indicator used to show
type of rock present in a certain area.
 LAND FORMS VEGETATION NATURE OF THE
ROCK
• Land forms:
• Land forms shown on the topographical maps help on interpretation of rock type
– e.g. The presence of volcanic land form such; crater, caldera, name of the volcanic mountains
suggest the presence of igneous rock.
– The presence of erosion and depositional features such as depression, sand dunes, coral reef
suggest the presence of sedimentary rock.
– Flood plain suggests sedimentary rock.
– The presence of highland with steep slope indicated that rock are hard and resistance rock
that may indicate presence of metamorphic rock.
• Vegetation
• Thick forest suggests the presence of igneous rock.
• Poor vegetation cover suggests the presence of sedimentary rocks or
metamorphic rock.
• Nature of the rock:
– Absence of streams indicates that the rocks are permeable. Thus this depict that the rock is
soft which can either be sedimentary, limestone or sandstone. -presence of many streams on
surface, indicate that the rock are impermeable such as igneous or granitic rock.
 C. RELIEF
• Read the contour and the conventional
symbols or signs on the map to identify types
of relief. Can either be highland relief with
lower arts or lowland relief. Describe the relief
with associated land forms.
 D. CLIMATE
• Climate is the average weather condition experience in a
given area over a long period of time not less than 30 years.
• Topographical maps may be used to identify the climate of
given mapped area. Some hints used in interpreting climate
from topographic map Latitude of the area.
• Distance from equator used to determine kind of climate of
a certain area. For example the area with latitude 5 degrees
north or south of equator the area is considered to be in
equatorial climatic condition while the area between 5 to
15 N/S is in tropical climatic condition, 15-30 N/S of the
equator imply Semi-desert 30-40 N/S implies desert climate
or Mediterranean climate.
 …cont’d
• Water bodies.
– a general high density of streams indicates that the area
receives high rainfall, presence of low density or seasonal
streams, salt lakes and boreholes indicate aridity.
• Vegetation,
– presence of forest in the map indicates heavy rainfall
while woodland vegetation indicates moderate rainfall.
shrubs, thickets and grassland indicate dry condition or
light rainfall Crops, crops grow in those areas where water
and temperature conditions are favorable for their
growth. For example area with tea, coffee and sugar cane
indicate that area receives heavy rainfall.
 MAP INTERPRETATION
PROCEDURE
• Map interpretation involves the study of
factors that explain the causal relationship
among several features shown on the map. For
example, the distribution of natural vegetation
and cultivated land can be better understood
against the background of landform and
drainage. Likewise, the distribution of
settlements can be examined in association
with the levels of transport network system
and the nature of topography.
 The following steps will help in map
interpretation:
• Find out from the index number of the
topographical sheet, the location of the area
in Ethiopia. This would give an idea of the
general characteristics of the major and minor
physiographic divisions of the area. Note the
scale of the map and the contour interval,
which will give the extent and general
landform of the area.
• Trace out the following features on tracing
sheets. (a) Major landforms – as shown by
contours and other graphical features. (b)
Drainage and water features – the main river
and its important tributaries. (c) Land use –
i.e. forest, agricultural land, wastes, sanctuary,
park, school, etc. (d) Settlement and Transport
pattern.
• Describe the distributional pattern of each of
the features separately drawing attention to
the most important aspect.
• Superimpose pairs of these maps and note
down the relationship, if any, between the
two patterns. For example, if a contour map is
superimposed over a land use map, it
provides the relationship between the degree
of slope and the type of the land used.
UTM
Mercator_ Transverse
Transvers
 UTM
• The idea of the Transverse Mercator
Projection has its roots in the 18th
century, but it did not come into
common usage until after World War
II.
• It has become the most used
because it allows precise
measurements in meters to within 1
meter.
 UTM(Universal Transverse
Mercator)
• adopted by U.S. Army in 1947
• is a Transverse Mercator to which
specific parameters, such as
standard central meridians, have
been applied (Snyder, 1987, p. 57).
• The Earth, between latitudes 84° N.
and 80° S., is divided into 60 zones,
each 6° wide in longitude
 Why do we need the UTM
coordinate system?
• In a rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system,
with linear x and y axes, it is fairly simple to
calculate distances and areas using plane
geometry (e.g. Pythagorean theorem)
• in a spherical coordinate system, these calculations
are very difficult because lines of longitude
converge at the poles - and the length of a degree
of longitude (in miles) changes with latitude
• the Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate
System (UTM) was designed to address this
problem
• the UTM coordinate system is a projected
coordinate system
• for a small area, the curvature of the Earth can be
ignored and the area is treated as a flat surface
 Advantages
• Cylindrical projection preserves Area
• Small extent minimizes distortion of
distance
• Only 3°either side of central
meridian
• Good for larger scale maps
• Plane Coordinate System –A standard
 Disadvantages of The UTM
• Small extent –Not good for small
scale maps
• Can not combine zones –Origins not
the same –What if the feature you
want to map lies on a zone
boundary?
• It is not Global –Does not extend to
north and south pole
 How it works?
• in the Universal Transverse Mercator
coordinate system the Earth is divided
into 60 UTM zones
• each zone covers 6o of longitude - and
each zone has a central meridian
• in the UTM system, each of the 60 UTM
zones are projected separately
• and then the zone’s coordinate system
(an x.y grid) is applied to that zone
 How ….cont’d
• given that the UTM coordinate system
is constructed using a transverse
cylindrical map projection, the line of
tangency (where the transverse
cylinder touches the globe) follows
along the central meridian
• the map distortion in each zone is
therefore minimal along the central
meridian and it increases E and W
How …cont’d
How …cont’d
How …cont’d
How….cont’d
How….cont’d
How….cont’d

To map any spot on Earth, one picks the

UTM Zone centerline that is closest to it
and then makes a map using that "UTM
Zone" cylindrical projection.
 Northern hemisphere -
• In the northern hemisphere, the origin of
each zone is define by:
1) the Equator and;
2) a line located 500,000 m west of the
central meridian -
• the easting and northing coordinates of a
location are then measured as follows:
• Easting: the distance east of the line
located 500,000 m west of the central
meridian
• Northing: the distance measured north of
the Equator
 Southern hemisphere -
• In the Southern Hemisphere, the origin of
each zone is define by:
1)a line located 500,000 m west of the central
meridian;
2)a line located 10,000,000 m south of the
Equator and - the easting and northing
coordinates of a location then are measured
as follows:
– Easting: the distance east of the line located
500,000 m west of the central meridian
– Northing: the distance north of the line
located 10,000,000 m south of the Equator
 How?
• The average circumference of the
earth is 40,030,173 meters, meaning
that there are 10,007,543 meters of
northing in each hemisphere.
 How to read?
• UTM coordinates are typically given
with the zone first, then the easting,
then the northing.
Earth’s shape and map:

Sphere, spheroid. Ellipsoid,

Geoid, datum
 2-D COMPARISON OF THE SPHEROID (a), ELLIPSOID
(b), AND GEOID (c) REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH.
 Shape of the earth Map
• In order to define position to the
accuracy required in map production,
a suitable homogenous datum and
coordinate system must be adopted
• The challenge is defining
Mathematical surface approximating
the shape of the area under
consideration and fits and orient to
the earth’s surface.
 Shape of the earth
• All map projections start by assuming a particular
shape of the Earth. The simplest route would be to
assume that the Earth is a perfect sphere .
• We know this isn't really true, because we can see
with our own eyes that the Earth's surface isn't very
sphere like at all; its covered with hills, valleys,
mountains and so on.
• However, we know that the Earth's overall shape is
fairly sphere like. This leads to a very important
concept in geodesy: the idea of breaking the
problem of defining the shape of the Earth into two
sub-problems:
– First, define the overall shape of the Earth (maybe as a
sphere), and
– Second, superimpose the mountains, valleys and so forth
onto the surface of the overall shape.
 Cont’d
• Spheroids, ellipsoids and geoids all
relate to efforts to solve the sub-
problem of defining the overall shape of
the Earth.
• The second sub-problem --
superimposing the mountains, hills,
valleys and so forth onto the overall
shape of the Earth -- doesn't really enter
into the map projection process.
Therefore, we can ignore the second
sub-problem for the time being.
 Sphere:
• In mathematical terms, a true sphere
is defined as all points in three-
dimensional space located at a
specific distance (the radius) from a
center point.
• Thus, in mathematical terms, all you
need to know about a sphere is
where its center is located and it
radius, and you'll know everything
there is to know about it.
 Cont’d
• This makes map projection processes based
on spheres relatively simple. Unfortunately,
the Earth's overall shape really isn't very
sphere like, so assuming a spherical Earth
isn't very realistic.
• If you were to produce a map based on this
assumption, your map would contain quite a
bit of distortion. Therefore, while the
spherical Earth assumption was almost
universally used in mapmaking a few
hundred years ago, modern mapmakers
frequently use other assumptions
 Spheroid:
• In reality, the overall shape of the
Earth is more like a spheroid than a
true sphere.
• A spheroid is a sphere like object
where only two of the three radii are
of equal length (the third radii can be
either longer or shorter than the
other two).
 Ellipsoid;
• An ellipsoid is a sphere like object where
all three axes are of differing length.
• However, ellipsoids don't do an
appreciably better job of representing
the overall shape of the Earth than do
spheroids, and the mathematics
involved in using ellipsoids is
considerably more difficult than the
math involved in using spheroids.
• Thus, ellipsoids are rarely used in
modern geodesy.
 Cont’d
• In reality, the Earth is slightly flattened at
the poles, so if you orient a spheroid so
that the two equally long radii run through
the plane of the equator and the third axis
runs through the poles, and shrink the
polar axis by about 20 kilometers relative
to the other two axes, you get a pretty
good idea of the overall shape of the
Earth.
• Over the last 170 years or so, many
scientists have developed a number of
spheroids that have been widely used in
mapmaking.
 Earth’s flattening
WGS 84 ellipsoid:
• a = 6,378,137m
• b = 6,356,752.3m
• Equatorial diameter = 12,756.3km
• Polar diameter = 12,713.5km
• Equatorial circumference = 40,075.1km
• Surface area = 510,064,500km2
 Geoid:
• A geoid is nothing more than the true
overall shape of the Earth.
Unfortunately, in practice, geoids are a
lot more complex than what this simple
definition suggests.
• Mostly, this complication arises from the
fact that in order to come up with a
precise definition of a geoid, we need to
be a lot more precise about what we
mean by the "overall shape" of the
Earth.
Geoid:
 Which Spheroid to use?
• Hundreds have been defined
depending upon:
– Available measurement technology
– Map extent:
– Country, Continent or Global
– Area of the globe
• e.g North America, Africa
 Which Spheroid to use?
• There are now two Ellipsoids/Spheroids most
commonly used to describe the shape of the
Earth:
• The first was determined by the International
Association of Geodesy (IAG) is the Geocentric
Reference System 1980, or GRS 80
• The second was determined by the US Defence
Department and is known as the World Geodetic
System 1984, WGS 84 (a=6,378,137 b=6,356,752.31)
 Fitting an Ellipsoid/Spheroid to the
Earth

• In Geodetic terms every point on the

surface of the Earth’s Geoid is defined by
3 values.
• The most common method Geodesists use
involves measuring the distance from the
centre of the Earth to the point on the
surface of the Ellipsoid/Spheroid. This is
called an Earth-centred Cartesian
Coordinate System. Three values are
recorded (x, y and z), and there are no
angles - only distance.
 Cont’d
• Another way is to use latitude, longitude
and ellipsoidal/spheroidal height (the
height above or below the datum’s
ellipsoid/spheroid surface). The first two
are angles and the third is a distance.
• It is important to note that if a point is
identified using either system it is
possible to rigorously convert one to the
other - provided they use the same
datum.
The Geoid, a globally best fitting ellipsoid for it, and a
regionally best fitting ellipsoid for it, for a chosen
region
Fit…Cont’d
…cont’d
 Datum:
• A datum is a system which allows the
location of latitudes and longitudes (and
heights) to be identified onto the surface
of the Earth – i.e onto the surface of a
’round’ object.
• A spheroid only gives you a shape—a
datum gives you locations of specific
places on that shape. Hence, a different
datum is generally used for each spheroid
• Two things are needed for datum: spheroid
and set of surveyed and measured points
 Datum: Ethiopia
• The Ethiopian Datum of 1936 was
established by the Italians at the West
End of Metahara Base (10,083.560 m)
where Φ0 = 8°53′22.53″± 0.18″N, Λ0 =
39°54′24.99″ East of Greenwich, the
reference azimuth to Mont Fantalli was
α0 = 13°05′21.97″+ 0.43″, and the presumed
ellipsoid of reference was the
International 1924 where a = 6,378,188
m and 1/f = 297.
 Blue Nile Datum of 1958
• The Blue Nile River Basin Investigation
Project was funded by the United States,
and the geodetic work was performed by
the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. The
origin of the geodetic work was in
southern Egypt near Abu Simbel, south of
Lake Nasser, at station Adindan where Φ0 =
22°10′07.1098″N, Λ0 = 31°29′21.6079″ East of
Greenwich, the deflection of the vertical ζ
= +2.38″ and η = –2.51″, and the ellipsoid
of reference was the Clarke 1880
(modified) where a = 6,378,249.145 m
and 1/f = 293.465.
• The Blue Nile Datum of 1958 appears
to be the established classical datum
of Ethiopia and much of North Africa.
• Adindan is the name of the origin, it
is not the name of the datum; a
most common mistake found in
many “reference works.”
• The Ethiopian Transverse Mercator
grid is based on a central meridian
where λ0 = 37°30′E, scale factor at
origin where mo = 0.9995, False
Easting = 450 km, and False
Northing = 5,000 km.
 Common Datums:
•Previously, the most common spheroid was Clarke
1866; the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)
is based on that spheroid, and has its center in
Kansas.
•NAD83 is the new North American datum (for
Canada/Mexico too) based on the GRS80
geocentric spheroid. It is the official datum of the
USA, Canada and Central America
•World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) is a newer
spheroid/datum, created by the US DOD; it is more
or less identical to Geodetic Reference System
1980 (GRS80). The GPS system uses WGS84.
 International Map Projection ( Modified Polyconic
Projection)
• A modification of the classic polyconic projection by
Charles Lallemand was used in the International Map
of the World series, a set of separate sheets in the
1 : 1,000,000 scale, to show the whole world on
separate sheets.
• In 1891 the Fifth International Geographical Congress
agreed on the development of a world-wide,
1:1,000,000 (or 1:1 million) scale series of maps. This
was to be called the International Map of the World
( IMW ).
• The maps were to be produced using an internationally
agreed, consistent specification.
• Roads were depicted in red, towns and railways in
black, and the labels were written in the Roman
alphabet.
• For several reasons the development of the
IMW maps was slow – reasons included two
World Wars, the Great Depression and lack
of funding and expertise in poorer countries.
• International interest waned and by the 1980s
only 800-1000 of the proposed 2500 maps
were completed.
• The project was abandoned by the mid-
1980s.
• However, the indexing system for sheets is
still used today in other projects.
Map numbering system of 1:1,000,000 sheet
• The enduring legacy of the IMW series is its map numbering
conventions.
• Separate sheets each on the scale of 1: 1,000,000 are prepared
according to a defined scheme agreed upon at a meeting of the
International map committee held at London in 1909.
• All of the sheets have different Index Number based on latitudinal
and longitudinal extent.
– Between 600 N and 600 S, each sheet has a coverage of 4°
latitude and 60 longitude.
– Between 600-760 N and S, each sheet covers 40 latitude and 120
longitude. The doubling of the longitudinal extent is because of
the shortening of distances between the meridians towards the
poles.
– the area between 760-880 N and S covers 40 latitude and 240
longitude.
– The area between 880-900 N and S is covered by one toposheet
each for the two hemispheres.
– A total of 2132/2222 sheets were prepared to cover the entire
world.
– The prefix N to every sheet of the northern hemisphere and
S for sheets in the south hemisphere were used.
– N or S prefixes are followed by alphabets A,B,C-----V to
represent each sheet with 40 latitude interval. Eg A for the
sheet covering 0-40 N latitude, B for the sheet covering 4-
80N latitude, ……. And V for the sheet covering 84-880 N.
– Each sheet bear a number representing longitudinal extent.
For areas between the latitudes 60° N and S is numbered 1
to 60 each with 60 interval (360/6=60).
– The number 1 starts from 1800- 1760 w and ends at 1760-
1800E with number 60.
– Example, NB-37 sheet represents ( N indicates North
hemisphere, B indicates areas between 40-80 N, and 37
indicates 360 E – 420 E (1800 + 420 = 37)
60
– Each sheet number is followed with known places of the
area it represent. Eg., NB-37 Awassa.
Construction of 1:1,000,000 sheet
• All parallels are non-concentric circular arcs, with
curvature identical to the classic polyconic's.
• every parallel is a standard parallel. Hence, adjacent
sheets fit north to south,
• Meridians are straight lines converging to the pole
of the hemisphere.
• Each sheet has two meridians correct to the scale,
which are 20 away from the central meridian ,
resulting in reduced scale errors.
• The scale is correct along the bounding parallel and
the two standard meridians—it contracts between
these meridians and expands outside them.
International modified polyconic projection.
• The length of meridians are mathematically driven
Latitude Corrected length (MM)
0-40 442.00
4-80 442.04
8-120 442.14
12-160 442.28
16-200 442.45
20-240 442.67
24-280 442.91
28-320 443.19
32-360 443.50
36-400 443.81
40-440 444.14
44-480 444.47
48-520 444.81
52-560 445.13
56-600 445.44
• Coordinates of the intersections of the parallels and meridians
(MM)
Longitude from the Central meridian
Latitude Coordinate 10 20 30
00 x 111.32 222.64 333.96

y 0.00 0.00 0.00

40 X 111.05 222.10 333.16

y 0.07 0.27 0.61

80 X 110.25 220.49 330.74

y 0.13 0.54 1.21

120 x

160 X

200 X

240 X

y
 The 1:250,000 Scale Topographic Maps

• The 1: 25,000 sheets are derived from the 1:

1,000,000 sheet.
• Based on convention, there are 16 individual
1:250,000 scale maps in an IMW zone. These are
numbered 1–16 in a regular pattern.
• This is added to the IMW zone number and
another unique number is created.
• Each sheet covers 10 latitude and 10 30’
longitude.
• In the case of the NB-37 IMW map sheet there
are sixteen 1: 250,000 sheets.
SHEET/UNIT INDEX SHEET/UNIT NAME PUBLISHED PAPER
NA 37-02 SOLOLO 1979 $59.00
NA 37-03 MOYALE 1979 $59.00
NB 36-03 TORI 1979 $59.00
NB 36-04 GECHA 1997 $59.00
NB 36-08 MAJI 1979 $59.00
NB 36-12 CHIDO 1997 $59.00
NB 37-01 JIMA 1997 $59.00
NB 37-02 HOSAINA 1997 $59.00
NB 37-03 ASELA 1995 $59.00
NB 37-04 GINNIR 2002 $59.00
NB 37-05 SAWLA / DIME 1994 $59.00
NB 37-06 DILA 1996 $59.00
NB 37-07 DODOLA (GOBA) 1999 $59.00
NB 37-08 MAGALO 2003 $59.00
 Numbering Other Scale Topographic Maps
• Similar principles of a unique numbering system
which had been developed for the 1:250,000
scale series topographic maps were also
developed for the 1:100,000, 1:50:000, 1:25,000
scale series topographic maps.
• The 1:100,000 scale topographic maps were
nested within the IMW system.
• There are six 1:100,000 scale maps contained
within a 1:250,000 scale map.
• Each sheet covers 30’ latitude by 30’ longitude
 The 1: 50, 000 Topographic Sheet
• The 1:50,000 sheets cover 15’ latitude by 15’
longitude.
• The index number is made up of 4 digit figures
( the first two representing latitudinal location
and the remaining two showing longitudinal
location) followed by alphabets and arabic
number - A1, A2, A3, A4, B1,
B2,B3,B4,C1,C2,C3,C4,D1,D2,D3 and D4.
• Eg 0638 C2 Dilla 60-15’-60 30’ N and 38015’-38030’
SERIES NAME MAP TYPE SCALE SHEETS
Ethiopian Mapping Authority
Ethiopia 1:1,000,000 Scale Topographic 1:1,000,00 10
Topographic Maps Maps 0
Ethiopia 1:250,000 Scale Topographic 1:250,000 75
Topographic Maps Maps
Ethiopia 1:50,000 Scale Topographic 1:50,000 1,598
Topographic Maps Maps
Cartographic Principles:
Map design
 Design
• Design is the optimum use of tools
for the creation of better solutions to
the problems that confront us.

• The end result of design “is the

initiation of change in man-made
things”
 Types of design
• Design operates in at least three
broad categories:
– Product design (things),
– environmental design (places), and
– communications design (messages)
(Potter 1969).
 Map design
• is the aggregate of all the thought
processes that cartographers go
through during the abstraction
phase of the cartographic process.
• It “involves all major decision
making having to do with
specification of scale,
projection, symbology,
typography, color, and so on”
(Robinson and Petchenik 1976, 19).
Concept of duality in map
design
• Mapmaking is in many respects a
creative process.
• Even if you know all of the standard
practices that exist for maps, you
will still have to deal with your unique
data and mapping goals.
• And the only way to deal with those is
to employ your creative skills.
 …Cont’d
• A lack of those skills could be
extremely detrimental to your
achievement of cartographic
excellence.

• As GIS experts you need knowledge

of
1. Mapping standards and
2. Creative intelligence
 Mapping standard?
• Without the standards
know‑how, you risk everything
from leaving out a bit of
information that could have been
useful all the way to making
grievous communications errors.
 Creating skill?

• Without the creative skills, you

could make maps that look
nondescript, that don’t adequately
illustrate your unique data and
their ramifications, that don’t
increase your professional capital,
and that fail to leave a lasting
impression.
 Creativity …cont’d
• Creativity can mean
– omitting a graphic element that does
not add value even though it is found on
most maps (logos are a good example of
this).

– venturing to do things in a new way

when the old way just doesn’t seem to
work anymore.
 Creativity …cont’d
• Creativity means being open to new
possibilities and being willing to
implement them, even in the face of
resistance from the traditionalists.
• And through this openness you will
create maps that more closely honor
their unique data and message than
any robot‑like mapmaker out there
could.
 In other words…It does
mean..
• Challenging assumptions—daring to
question what most people take as truth.
• Recognizing patterns—perceiving significant
similarities or differences in ideas, events, or
physical phenomena.
• Seeing in new ways—looking at the
commonplace with new perceptions;
transforming the familiar into the strange, and
the strange into the familiar.
• Making connections—bringing together
seemingly unrelated ideas, objects, or events
in ways that lead to new concepts.
 …cont’d
• Taking risks—daring to try new ways,
with no control over the outcome.
• Using chance—taking advantage of the
unexpected.
• Constructing networks—forming
associations for the exchange of ideas,
perceptions, questions, and
encouragement.
The Design process
The visualization process
 The four visualization processes
• Preparation. At this stage, a person consciously “files
away” into memory visual images that can be useful
for a problem at hand. This may be referred to as an
image pool.
• Incubation. The person releases all conscious hold
on the problem and turns to other tasks.
– It is theorized that images in a person’s mind are
rearranged into new alignments and patterns during this
truly creative stage.
 …cont’d
• Illumination. The solution to the problem
appears suddenly, often spontaneously.

• Verification or revision. The person

consciously works out the details of the
solution, bringing all efforts and skills to bear.
Formal structures result.
 Design
• there are some (scientific) rules in map
design
• but much artistic judgement in terms of
– selection of colours
– symbology
– labelling (format and position)
– arrangement of overall layout
– (plus data selection, projection, scale, etc)
• subtle changes in design (e.g. weight of a
label font for particular objects) can yield
big changes in how the map is read
• use (and mis-use) the power of design
 Cartographic
Generalization and
selection
1. Generalization: To fit portrayal of
selected features to the map scale and to
the requirements of effective
communication
2. Selection: to limit our concerns to those
classes of information that will serve the
purpose of the map
• there is no one true map of a phenomena
or place
 Elements of Generalization
1. Classification: ordering, categorizing,
& grouping features by their attribute
2. Simplification: Determining important
characteristics of features attribute
and eliminating unwanted details
3. Symbolization: Using graphic marks
to encode the features for visualization
and place them into map
4. Exaggeration: Enhancing,
emphasising important features
Key modes of
generalisation

• distortion is
inherent,
inevitable,
unavoidable

•may have to leave

features off the map
altogether

• avoid visual clutter,

balance content and
legibility
 1. Data classification
• classification is a key method of
abstracting reality into simplified map
• method of classification is important as
effects ‘look’ of the map
• classification scheme can easily be
experimented with (manipulated?) to give
the pattern you want
• classification should ‘match’ data
distribution
• number of classes. can reader interpret
between them?
 Number of classes?
• Sturges (1926) provides a useful starting point based upon the
log function of the number of observations.
• He suggests the following formula to determine the number of
classes:

• where C is the number of classes and n is the number of

observations being classed. The results suggest the use of
five or six classes when the n equals thirty and seven or eight
when n equals 100.
 Data Classification Schemes
• The selection of the appropriate data
classification scheme is determined by
– the characteristics of the data and
– the desired level of generalization.
 Common techniques used to
classify data
1. Natural breaks,
2. Optimization,
3. Nested means,
4. Mean and standard deviation,
5. Equal interval,
6. Equal frequency,
7. Arithmetic,
8. Geometric, and
9. User defined.
.
Classification options from
ArcMap
1. Natural
breaks (Jenks
method),
2. Quantiles,
3. Equal
interval,
4. Standard
deviation
 2.Simplification
• Elimination
– point and area elimination
• Smoothing –filtering
• Simplification by reducing scale of the map
Simplification
 Exaggeration
• Enhancement of features
 4.Symbolization
• Most maps involve abstract symbols
– Represent features of interest
– Can’t always show them as they actually look
 Map symbolisation
• graphic language (of points, lines, polygon, icons and
text) used to represent ‘real’ features on the map
• legibility (‘practical’)
• harmonious (‘pretty’)
• symbols can be iconic, geometric or abstract
• symbol selection is creative aspect of design, wide
choice and few firm rules
• symbols can have several different dimensions
(properties or characteristics) which encode meaning
• symbols can have quantitative or qualitative meaning
 Visual Variables
• Primary
– Shape, size, orientation and color
 Graphic Variables

• Shape
• Size
• Color
– Hue
– Lightness
– Saturation
• Orientation
• Pattern
• Texture
 Levels of Measurement
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
 Symbolization & Measurement
Nominal Ordinal Interval/Ratio
ShapeShape x
Size Size x x
ColorColor
Hue Hue x -
Lightness
Lightness x x
Saturation
Saturation x
Orientation
Orientation x
Pattern
Pattern x
Texture
Texture x x
 Symbolization

Shape Size Hue Lightness

 Graphic variables for
•
symbols
shape, size, orientation
• colour hue, colour value, colour saturation,
pattern, and location of course
 Controls of Generalization
• Map purpose and condition of use
• Map scale
• Quality and quantity of data
• Graphic limit
– Physical limit
– Physiological and psychological limit
 Principles of graphical excellence

• show the data

• induce the reader to think about the
substance rather than the methodology,
graphic design, gee-whiz technology
• avoid distorting what the data have to say
• present many numbers in a small space
• make large datasets coherent
• encourage the eye to compare different
pieces of data
 Principles of graphical
excellence
• reveal the data at several levels of detail,
from broad overview to the fine structure
• serve a reasonably clear purpose:
description, exploration, tabulation or
decoration
• be closely integrated with the statistical
and verbal descriptions of a dataset
 Try to cover the following
• assumption of maps made for
presentation, they need to be usable for
general audience
• map layout
• map scale and generalisation
• symbolisation and graphic variables
• choropleth mapping & data classification
• colour
• labelling and typography
 Map layout
• for presentation maps, some conventions on what
to include:
– a title (or caption). clearly state what the map shows.
plus relevant date of data, sources, missing values,
author, contact info, etc
– a legend, so any reader can interpret the content of the
map. meaning of all symbol and colours
– scale indication. translates distance on the map to
distance on the ground
– orientation indication (the good old north arrow)
– borders and neatlines
• these conventions are widely broken!
 Map scale
• what level of detail is shown
• crucial to choose appropriate scale to work at
• large scale map : small surface area in high
detail (e.g. city plans)
• small scale : large surface area in low detail
(e.g. national road atlas)
• scale represented as a statement (“one inch
equals five miles”), a graphical scale bar,
(useful for measuring lengths), or as a
representative fraction (1:1250)
• very few maps use scale consistently for
every object
 Design and colour
• gives structure and readability
• developing figure and ground relationships
– warm colour better for figures. Said to ‘advance’ to
viewer. Cool colours tend to recede
• perceptual grouping of like features through
colour
• colour contrasts. using value or saturation to
represent data on thematic maps
• qualitative conventions - blue for water, green
for lush vegetation; red = warm and blue = cool
in temperatures; hill shading
 Labelling the map
• lettering choice can have a significant impact
to effectiveness of the map
• typography - practical and ‘personality’
• map text to label features has several key
parameters
– font typeface, size spacing
– placement and orientation
• map labels can communicate important data,
e.g. hierarchy of features, implying importance
• manual labelling of features can get very
tedious. but automatic label placement is still
far from perfect
 COLOR IN CARTOGRAPHIC
DESIGN
• The Functions of Color in Design
1. To reveal information for better communication
2. To establish a visual hierarchy
3. To develop a balance in the map
4. To capture the user’s attention
5. To identify and name locations
6. To identify categories
7. To provide emphasis
8. To show order and structure in layout
9. To enhance physical properties of the map
10. To establish figure-ground organization
 Design Strategies for the Use of
Color
• Map designers employ several strategies to
use color to its fullest potential in map
communication.
1. Developing Figure and Ground
2. The Use of Color Contrast
3. Developing Legibility
4. Color Conventions in Mapping
5. Color Harmony in Map Design
 COLOR COMBINATIONS USEFUL
IN DEVELOPING FIGURE AND GROUND ORGANIZATION
ON THE THEMATIC MAP
LEGIBILITY OF COLORED LETTERING
ON COLORED BACKGROUNDS
 Robinson (1967) has itemized many of the conventional
uses, as follows:

1. Blue for water

2. Red with warm and blue with cool temperature, as
in climatic and ocean representations
3. Yellow and tans for dry and little vegetation
4. Brown for land surfaces (representation of uplands
and contours)
5. Green for lush and thick vegetation
 Some considerations
• from Dent (1999, page 271)
– legibility of individual letters is of paramount
importance, especially in smaller type sizes.
Choose a typeface in where there is little chance
of confusion between c and e and i and j
– select a typeface with a relatively large base
height
– avoid extremely bold forms
– choose a typeface that has softer shading;
extreme vertical shading is more difficult to read
than rounder forms
– do not use decorative typefaces on the map as
they are difficult to read
 Code of ethics

1. always have a straightforward agenda, and have a

defining purpose or goal for each map
2. always strive to know your audience, the
potential/likely map users
3. do not intentionally lie with data
4. always show relevant data whenever possible
5. data should not be discarded simply because they
are contrary to the position held by the
cartographer
6. at a given scale, strive for an accurate portrayal of
the data
 Code of ethics
7. the cartographer should avoid plagiarizing; report
all data sources
8. symbolization should not be selected to bias the
interpretation of the map
9. the mapped result should be able to be repeated
by other cartographers
10. attention should be given to differing cultural
values and principles
 Layout: Primary Elements

• Title
• Subtitle
• Legend
• Maps
• North arrow
• Date
• Authorship
• Scale bars
• Page border
 Secondary Elements
• Neat lines , Graticules, Network
path, Disclaimer , Data sources,
Data citations, Logos, Graphs,
Photographs, Graphics, Map
number, if series, tables,
Copyright, Projection, Inset
maps, Descriptive text
Title Placement?
 Legend
• The legend is a standard element on
most layouts.
• It provides the color and symbol key
look‑up details for the map element.
• It is comprised of an item (icon,
point, line, polygon) and its label
(description of the item).
 Placement of Legend
• Legends need to be within or nearby the
map element with which they are associated.
Legends can be placed outside of the map
element, in the margin, in either of the
following two cases: if there is only one map
element on the layout or if all map elements
on the layout share a common legend.
• If there are multiple map elements with
different features on each, it is not always
clear which legend goes with which map
unless the legend is superimposed on its
map element.
 Cont’d
• When placed inside the map element it
ought not to obscure the underlying
data and is often therefore placed in
areas that are not important to the
map’s purpose such as on the ocean
for a terrestrially focused map or on
the land for a marine‑centered map. In
such instances a background box is
often needed to provide uniform
background color on which to set the
text.
 Maps
• The map element is a large graphic that
shows off data in coordinate space. There
are two questions that you need to
answer as soon as you start thinking
about a layout.
• The first is how many maps do you need
on one layout? And related to that is the
second question: should you overlap
multiple layers onto one large map
element or separate the layers onto
multiple smaller map elements?
 Placement

• In most cases the map element or

elements will consume the majority of
the layout space. When there is a
hierarchy of maps on the same layout
there should be no doubt as to which is
the main map. It is either set apart in
size or position or, most effectively,
both. When just one map is desired it is
placed in a central but slightly
off‑center location on the layout.
 North Arrow
• The north arrow, whether it is fancy or
unadorned, has the sole purpose of
illustrating the orientation of the map to
the viewer.
• Most GIS maps are already oriented with
north at the top of the layout. However,
there are certainly instances where this
is not the case and therefore it is
standard practice to include the north
arrow. Its inclusion is almost always
warranted.
 Placement
• North arrows are best left in a less
conspicuous area of the layout.
Sometimes you might use one to
conveniently balance out some other
element. Grouping the north arrow
with other ancillary map information
such as the scale bar and legend is
another common practice.
 Date
• The date referred to here is the date
on which the layout was printed.
(Dates of your data sources are
addressed in the Data Citations
section).
• It is important to include the date on
most layouts that are intended to be
stand‑alone prints.
 Placement
• The date is considered metadata and
therefore should be placed with the
other margin elements in an
inconspicuous location.
 Authorship

•“Authorship” refers to the person and agency

who designed the map, created the analysis,
and put together the layout. It can include more
than one author if these tasks were completed
by several people, but it always includes at least
one name, not just the agency.
 Scale Bars
• A scale bar is a graphic that shows
the map viewer how to translate
between map units and real‑world
units.
 Page Border
• A page border is used to group all the
layout elements together by means of a
single graphic line surrounding all of the
elements. When the layout consists of a
single map element with all other elements
floating on top of the map, the page border
is sometimes, but not always, redundant
with the map border. When the layout
contains elements outside of the map
element(s), a page border is usually used to
contain those items.
 Neat Lines
• A neat line is simply a graphic line
placed on the layout. These lines can
be used singly, in tandem, or in
groups and can consist of simple
lines or boxes.
 Graticules
• Graticules are latitude and longitude
lines that run along the surface of
the map element and enable the
viewer to visualize how the flat map
surface relates to the real‑world 3D
surface in the map’s projection.
 Disclaimer
• The GIS map disclaimer is used by
most public agencies and many
private companies to protect
themselves from lawsuits arising
from the map being used for
unintended purposes and to inform
the reader as to the potential
limitations of the map product.
 Projection
• The projection of the main map element is
sometimes reported in the layout margin as
part of the metadata for the layout.
Methods of Thematic mapping
 Thematic map
• Single purpose map
• Displays only one theme
• Used for specific purpose
 Mapping tec.
• Geographers use many methods to create
thematic maps, but four techniques are
especially noted.
1. Choropleth
2. Isopleth
3. Proportional symbol
4. Dot map
 Choropleth
• The most commonly used method of thematic
mapping.
• are great to map phenomena that are evenly
distributed within each enumeration unit (set
area).
Qualitative data – ecosystems
choropleth map
 Isarithmic
• These maps, also known as contour maps,
depict smooth continuous phenomena such as
rainfall, barometric pressure, etc.
• They are also well-suited to displaying three-
dimensional values such as elevation.
 Proportional Symbol:

• Also known as graduated symbols, these maps

represent data associated with point locations
(i.e., cities or counties). The data is displayed
with proportionally sized symbols to
graphically represent a realistic difference in
occurrence.
Quantitative data_ ratio level
Proportional symbol map
 Dot map
• A map using dots to show the presence of a
feature or occurrence and display a spatial
pattern. One dot represents a certain amount
of some phenomenon’s occurrence. One dot
represented one death. One dot, one
occurrence is not a required equation. One
dot may represent any set number of
occurrences.