Unit One: Introduction

Cartography is about maps

 It includes the art, science and technology of map making,
the use of maps as research tools and as sources of
information, and the study of maps as historical documents
and works of art.
 Map Interpretation is the way of understanding and reading
of maps with a meaningful spatial and non-spatial data
analysis produced by cartographers
 1.1 Definition of Cartography

Some of the most relevant definitions given by different

scholars and organizations are as follows;
 Science that studies
 geographical maps
 the methods
 processes of their compilation and
 reproduction. M. Shokalsky, V.A. Kamenetsky, 1930
 The science of making any map, embracing all phases of
work from surveying to map printing.

Cartographic Office of the United Nations Organization, 1949

 Cont’d

 Cartography ranged from the study of information, collected

by "surveyors" - using that word in its widest observational
sense - to the final reproduction of maps and charts at any
scale, on any subject and by any means.

Cartography Subcommittee of the British National Committee for

Geography of the Royal Society, 1965

 The conception, the designing and the execution of the

map. Robinson
 Cont’d

 Cartography is the totality of investigation and operations -

scientific, artistic and technical - which have as their aim the
making of maps and as well as the use of maps.
Commission on Cartographic Education of the International Cartographic
Association
 Cartography is the art, science and technology of making
maps together with their study as scientific documents and
works of art.

British Cartographic Society

 Cont’d

 Cartography is the theory, technique and practice of map

making and map use. Kolacny.
 The meaning of the term ‘cartography’ has been changed
fundamentally since 1960.
 Before 1960 cartography was generally defined as
‘manufacturing maps’.
 After 1960,cartography was defined not only the
manufacturing of maps, but also their use is regarded as
belonging to the field of cartography
 Cont’d

The change of the definition is due to two

factors:
1. The fact that the subject has moved in to
the field of communication science
2. The advent of the computers
Therefore, Cartography nowadays is seen as
‘the conveying of spatial information by
means of maps.’
 Cont’d

 As a conclusion, it is said that as cartographers are to map

makers, geographers are to map readers.
 In other way, it is said that “Geographers know where it is
at” and “Cartographers show where it is at”
So, what do you understand about
cartography from the definitions given by
different scholars?
 Scope of Cartography

 Scope refers to coverage’s of cartography and what filed of

study are incorporated with cartography.
 A skilled cartographer not only will have mastered the
principle of map making but also will have a firm grasp of:
• environmental sciences,
• understanding the cognitive process of thought
and
• communication,
• be familiar with the other mapping sciences.
 Cont’d

 In its scope is viewed as the art, science and technology of

map making and map use, and the study of maps in all its
aspects.
Thus, there are four processes in cartography.
1. Collecting and selecting the data for mapping.
2. Manipulating and generalizing the data designing and
constructing the map.
3. Reading or reviewing the map.
4. Responding to, or interpreting the information
 Cont’d

 In order to master these processes, a cartographer must be

familiar with all mapping activities including those
associated with the other mapping science (geodesy,
surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing and geographic
information).
 The map has provided two important functions:
1. It serves as a storage medium for information which
humanity needs;
2. It provides a picture of the world to help us understanding
the spatial patterns, relationships and complexity of the
environment in which we live
 Cartographic Communication System and Process

 One of the most useful approaches to the study of

cartography is to view maps as a form of visual
communication with special-purpose language for
describing spatial relationships.

 The four main stages in cartographic process are:

1. data collection, organization, and manipulation;
2. map design and artwork preparation;
3. map production and
4. map reproduction
Schematic diagrams of map making process

Map design and

art work
preparation
2
Map Production
Data 3
collection,
organizing &
Mapping
manipulation Map
efficiency
1 Reproduction
4

Map
Map
Map Storage Storage
Storage
(Digital) (Analogue)
(Analogue)
1.1. Data Collection, Organization and Manipulation of Data

Data must be collected from:

– existing maps,
– aerial photographs or
– satellite imagery,
– documents, e.g. legal descriptions of property
boundaries, historical documents, etc.,
– field work or
– questionnaire surveys.
 Cont’d

 The data must be organized and manipulated into a form

which is suitable for mapping
 This may involve aggregating data to some specified set of
spatial units, calculating percentages, densities or other
summary measures from the raw data.
 1.2. Design and Preparation of Maps,
Charts, Plans and Graphs

 Many decisions go into the design of an effective map.

 These include the selection of the geographic features and
thematic attributes to be represented on the map,
projection type, map scale.
 A small scale map can show a large area but little detail
while a large scale map shows a smaller area but with more
detail.
 Cont’d

 Designing the map also includes consideration of how the

information will be symbolized.
 Do you show the data in color or not?
 Can you afford to reproduce the map in colour?
 Are the data qualitative or quantitative?
 Will you represent the data using point, line or area
symbols?
 How will you arrange the map itself as well as items such as
title blocks, legends, and scale symbols on the page?
 1.3. Map Production

 In the process of map development after designing the

actual map, cartographers should produce a single map for
check up.
 Before map is reproduced in the required quantity, the
quality of the map, whether the conventional signs and
symbols are used or not, producing a single map is
important.
 This is mainly important for correcting the human errors
done in the design step
 Cont’d

 If maps are reproduced in a required quantity with out

checking the errors at this stage, unnecessary costs and
time might be incurred.
 Eg. If scale is missed to put in the marginal information, if
blue color is used for vegetation type.
 1.4. Map Reproduction

 How many copies of the map will be required?

 In some instances, distribution of maps in digital format on
tape, disk or CD-ROM is replacing or at least reducing the
need for printed maps.
 Finally, If cartography is a form of communication, the
measure of a good map is how well it conveys information
to its readers to enlighten, convince, or persuade.
 Therefore, To ask "what is a good map?" is to ask how well it
communicates with its audience
Cartographic communication process
 Cartography versus GIS

(a) GIS is a computer based information system which

attempts to capture, store, manipulate, analyze and display
spatially referenced and associated attribute data for solving
complex research, planning and management problems
(b) GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, and people
organizing, collecting, storing, analyzing and disseminating
information about the areas of the earth
(c ) GIS is an information technology which stores, analyses
and displays both spatial and non-spatial data
(d) GIS are specialized data bases that preserve location
identities of the information that they record.
Maps are :
- static
- difficult to update
- storage is a problem
- likely to fade, torn and shrink
- human to interpret the relationship between features with
static data shown on the map …
… where as GIS :
 makes maps dynamic
 displays map information interactively
 build the spatial relationship between features
 analyze to answer real-world problems
 1.5 MAPS

 A map is defined as a representation of all or part of the

earth’s surface on a plane surface with conventional signs.
 The representation is drawn to a specific scale to show
distinctive aspects of the surface such as relief features,
settlements, land-use, communication networks etc. from
the reality.
 The word “map” may be traced to the Latin term, mappa
meaning “a sheet of cloth”
 a map is far smaller in size than the actual area of the
earth’s surface pattern it represents.
 every map is drawn to scale which determines the ratio
between distances of two points on a map and their
corresponding distance on the ground.
 A cartographic representation without a scale should not
be called a map, better call it a diagram or sketch.
 A student of GIS should thoroughly understand the
implications of using a scale in order to visualize the
positions of objects marked on a map.
 Scales and their uses are, therefore, of prime importance to
the cartographer as well as to the GIS experts.
 Classification of Maps

 Maps are fundamentally constructed on a horizontal plane

and they exhibit a trait which belongs exclusively to
cartographic representations.
 The foundations of topographic map are provided by their
ground or aerial surveyors.
 Maps are characterized in respect of the principle with
reference to:
• Flattening (according to the laws of mathematical transformation);
• Reduction (a reduction ratio in proportion to reality, i.e., 1:10);
• Generalization (are reduced in content, standardized, build up on a
selection of detail, condensed, etc.)
• Enhancement (example, by addition of contour lines which are not
visible in nature).
Maps are classified based on three essential things.
(i) Based on Scale
(ii) Based on Purpose
(iii) Based on information they conveyed
(i) According to scale, maps may be classified as follows:
1) Cadastral Map
 Cadastral maps are used for demarcating the boundaries of
land properties, fields, gardens and buildings (Rural or Urban
Cadastre)
 Cadastral map is especially prepared and compiled by the
government agencies and is used for revenue and tax
purposes.
2. Topographical Maps
 It is prepared on large scale to show the general surface
features in detail, for example, natural landscape as well as
cultural landscape
 It doesn’t show the boundaries of individual lands.
 It is very important tool for geographers and military experts,
because it depicts the topographical forms like relief,
drainage, swamp, forests etc.
3. Wall Maps
 maps are prepared for keen observation;
 It is generally drawn boldly;
 Its scale is larger than atlas maps but smaller than
topographical maps.
 4. Atlas map

 Atlas maps are also called chorographical map

 It is drawn on a very small scale e.g, 1:2,000,000
 It provides highly generalized information of physical,
climatic and economic conditions of different regions of the
Earth.
2) According to purpose maps are broadly classified as follows:
(1) Physical maps
(2) Cultural maps
1) Physical Maps
Physical maps are those maps, which are specially
prepared for the natural product or God gifted
things such as heavenly body, soil, vegetation,
relief etc.
 Types of Physical maps

(a) Geological Maps

 This type of map is prepared to show the type of rock, its
occurrence and depositions.
 They are quite like topo-sheets which tell of the geological
structure of the region with the aid colour-shades super
imposed upon their respective location.
(b) Astronomical maps:
 Astronomical maps are prepared to show the heavenly
bodies and It may be shown on large or small scale.
(c) Relief maps

 They portray the relief features of the land by hatchers, or

columnar or by different shades or tints (green, yellow, and
brown) between the contour lines;
 It also show the drainage patterns there on.
 Relief map is also known as chorographic map.
 It indicates the slopes, river systems, mountains, plateaus,
plains etc.
(d) Climate maps:
 It is prepared to show the average weather condition of a
long period for example 30 years.
(e) Weather map:
 It is produced by meteorological offices.
 weather map is prepared to show the average condition of
temperature, pressure, wind and precipitation over a short
period of time.
(f) Soil map:
It depicts the different soils of the area by
different shades or colors.
(g) Vegetation map:
 It is prepared to show the types and the distribution of the
various species of vegetation.
(h) Aeronautical charts:
 help to pilots as they represents the topographical features
of the land in multi color-contour lines are shown in brown;
(i) Navigational Charts
 Their main emphasis is on coasts and coastal water; as such
they concentrate on those features which a sea-sight
commands.
 They also show the depth of the sea, its bottom relief and its
tides and currents.
 They show the cliffs along the shores with their heights
 (2) Cultural maps

 Cultural maps are maps which reflect man made features

which come in to existence due to the interaction of
activities of human beings with nature.
Types of Cultural Maps
(a) Political maps:
 This type of map represents the boundaries between
different political units. It may be village, block, districts,
regions, countries or continents.
 As an example, the political map of Ethiopia shows the
distribution of regional state boundaries.
(b) Land use map:
 Using the human intervention, land is used for different
purpose.
 The nature and character of land-use are represented by this
type of map.
(c) Historical map:
 This type of map is prepared to show the past events.
(C) Military map: It is prepared to show the strategic points,
routs etc. for the convenience of military.
(d) Tourist map: A map that helps for tourists as a guide where
tourism sites located.
(e) Road map: Which represents different standards of road on
the map (Asphalt, all weather road, dry weather road)
(f) Social maps: This type of map depicts, social organism
(tribes and races), their languages, religions etc.
(iii) Maps based on the information they conveyed

(1) Thematic Maps

(2) General Maps
(1) Thematic Maps
 It shows a specific information that shows a single entity
 Maps within this category usually have as their background
a simplified depiction of the topography.
 It is also called topical map or specific map maps as it show
information about one specific topic
 For example, soil map, land use map, population
distribution map etc.
(2) General Maps
 This type of map incorporate a variety of information.
 It is also called topographic maps
 1.6 The Uses of Maps

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be
able to:
• Explain the major uses of maps;
• Read information from various of maps;
• Differentiate the ancient and modern use
of map.
 Cont’d

• During the ancient period, or the primitive

societies, simple maps are drawn in sand soil
to show the location of a water hole, river, an
excellent hunting ground and the way how to
get there.
• In this discussion we examine Map Uses from
the perspective of the generic task, such as
analysis, communication, exploration, etc
 Modern use of maps

1. For Communication and Propaganda

• Many maps are produced to convey general
information about an area or thematic information
about any number of subjects.
• It is said as “ A single map worth's thousands of
words”
2. Navigation and Control
• Whether we move on land, at sea, or in the air, we
rely heavily on maps to plan our routes and to
maintain our course.
 Cont’d

3. Planning
• The obvious forms of planning that use maps are
urban planning and regional planning.
• Military operations rely heavily on maps whether
for the movement of vehicles and troops, the
assessment of enemy positions, or any number of
other possibilities.
• Maps are also helpful to identify the potential of
areas subject to hazards ( natural and man-made)
 Cont’d

4. Storage of Information
• The topographic maps that are produced by most
countries are good examples of this type of map use.
• Maps give standardize information deemed to be
important, such are boundaries, hydrography,
topography, road network and place names etc.
• Fifty years old map may still be useful for the
examination of changes in topography and
hydrography and other information in comparison to
the current.
 Cont’d

In a general way maps are used for the following:

1. Identifying Position (location)
• A map gives the location or position of places or
features.
• The positions are usually given by the co-
ordinates of the place, either as the Cartesian
co-ordinates (x,y) in metres or as geographical
co-ordinates (latitude and longitude) in degrees,
minutes and seconds.
 Cont’d

• Example: The position of Mekelle town is

13º29' North latitude, 39º28' East longitude
geographically.
2. Providing spatial relationships
• A map gives us the spatial relationship
between features
• Example, What province is the neighbor of
another province?
 Cont’d

3. Determining distance, Direction, Area

• We can measure the distance from Addis to arba
minch, determine the direction that Tigray is to
the north of Wollo, or calculate the size of the
Tigray region. But, there must be a scaled map.
Activity
 Discuss in group the uses of World map? And
what is the difference from a globe?
 Maps and their limitations

 A photograph shows all objects in its view, but a map is an

abstraction of reality.
 The cartographer selects only the information that is
essential to fulfill the purpose of the map.
 Maps use symbols such as points, lines, area patterns and
colors to convey information.
 Any practical map shrinks Earth features down to a
manageable size by scale.
 Only a true globe would allow a similar conclusion for any
pair of points on its surface.
 In flat maps, most likely the scale will not be constant,
changing with direction and location.
 Maps portray only the information that has been chosen to
fit the use of the map.
 The information on maps is classified and simplified, to make
it easier to understand.
 All maps use sign to stand for elements of reality.
 1.6Reading Contours and Relief

Contour lines are the most common and accurate way of

showing relief on modern maps. A shoreline is a good example
of a contour line.
Contour lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of the
same elevation above mean sea level. They give almost true
altitudes. They also indicate different slopes and land forms.
Figure: 2.23 Sketches of a hill with contour lines
 Properties of Contour Lines

i. Contour lines are imaginary lines used on a map to

represent relief. Unlike the lines that represent rivers,
boundaries or coast lines, contours do not really exist on the
earth’s surface. The only contour line that exists both on the

map and in the field is the sea level.

ii. A set of contour lines is drawn at a fixed height interval.
For example in the Figure 2.23, contour lines are drawn at 50-
meter intervals. The difference in altitude between two
successive contour lines is known as vertical interval (V. I.) or
contour interval (C. I.). The V. I. helps us to find out the
heights of unnumbered contour lines.
iii. Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on maps
except at vertical cliffs, waterfalls or over hanging cliffs. For
example, two or more contour lines run together and then
separate to represent the cliff shown in the figure below.

Contour lines showing a cliff

The cliff in the preceding diagram is a vertical mountain
wall. It rises from 100 meters to 150 meters. The crossing of
contours occurs only in the case of an overhanging cliff.
Usually contours representing a cave under an overhanging
cliff are shown with pecked lines.

Figure: 2.25 An
overhanging cliff
iv. Contour lines never branch. If you see branching lines on a
map, they represent features such as rivers, roads, boundaries,
etc.
v. A contour line joins all points of the same altitude. For
example, an altitude of 250 m will be on the 250 m contour
line. The altitude of any point outside this line will be either
greater or less than 250 meters
Heights shown by contour lines
vi. Contour lines are always numbered in the direction towards
which altitude increases. These numbers can be shown with or
without breaking contour lines

Numbering of contours
vii. Contour lines indicate the nature of slopes.
When contour lines are far apart, they show
gentle slopes. But when contour lines are close
together, they show steep slopes

Contour-line spacing
indicating slope
steepness
viii. Contour lines can be printed with different thicknesses on
a map. This is especially helpful in mountainous areas where
altitudes may vary considerably from summits to valley floors.
In order to make the reading of contour maps easier, every fifth
or tenth contour line is printed thicker than the rest. Such
contour lines are called index contour lines, while the rest are
called regular contour lines.
Contour lines with a difference in thickness
ix. Contour lines can show different types of landforms, such
as mountains, hills, plateaus, depressions, valleys, spurs,
ridges, gorges, passes, plains, etc.
 Many of these relief features are readily recognized from the
shapes of their contour lines.
Landforms represented both diagrammatically and by contour lines
Landforms represented both diagrammatically and by contour lines
 Different Methods of Showing Altitudes on Contour Maps

 Contour lines show altitude and relief on modern maps.

 However, they do not show the specific heights of
individual features such as mountain peaks, hilltops, valley
floors, towers, towns, roads or railways. Such heights are
indicated on maps, using the following methods:
a. Spot heights
 They are marked on the map with a dot followed by an
altitude number: Example: • 1940 meter
 They provide accurate altitudes for individual points, such as
those along a road, on a mountain top, or between contour
lines.
 Unlike contour lines, spot heights do not give a good visual
impression of the general relief.
 They exist only on maps.
b. Trigonometrical points
 They exist both on maps and in the field.
 They mostly mark features such as hilltops and mountain
peaks.
o On the ground, the relevant feature is permanently marked
with a pillar (concrete).
• On maps, they are shown with a small triangle enclosing a dot, followed
by the exact altitude in meters
c. Benchmarks
 They indicate precise heights along highways or railways.
 They are shown on stones, bricks or bronze plates on walls
of buildings and other convenient places.
 They are useful for road construction engineers and others
who wish to know the precise altitude of a main transport
network.
• Example: BM 1850.
 1.7. Map Scale: Concept and Definitions

 Map scale is a method for expressing how map distance

compares to ground distance, or the distance on the surface
of the earth.
 A map's scale determines how features are represented on
the map,
 Map is a set of points, lines, and areas all defined both by
position with reference to a coordinate system and by their
non-spatial attributes.
 A map scale uses a dynamic ratio, 1:X, where 1 represents
map distance and X represents distance on the earth.
 Map and earth distance are always the same unit.
 For example, if you have a map scale of 1:63,360, one unit of
measure on the map represents 63,360 units of the same
measure in the real world.
 The main purpose of the scale is to bring either the whole
globe or a part of it on the convenient size of paper.
 The selection of scale depends on various factors.
1. The size of the paper;
2. The amount and characters of details of information to be
shown;
3. The size of the area to be mapped.
 Scale can be metric or non-metric scales.
 Metric scale is represented in millimeter, centimeter, meter
and kilometer, where as non-metric scale representation
can be in miles, inches and feet system.
 Different country uses different system, e.g. Ethiopia uses a
metric system.
In a broad sense, scale can be divided into two measurable
ways, namely:
1. Linear scale
2. Areal scale
 Basic formulas of scale

 In reality, areal scale is not given on a map as only linear

scale is given as a standard because areal scale can easily be
found by squaring the linear scale
Example

 A sketch map with out any scale representation can not be

said scaled map rather non-scaled map.
 Lesson Activity

Discuss the following activities in small groups:

1. Scale means ratio, proportion or relationship. Thus, Scale is the
ratio of the distances and areas shown on the map to the
corresponding distances and areas on the actual earth’s surface.
Do you agree or disagree to this statement? Why?
2. Any sketch map drown by map makers can reflect the actual
measurement of the distance on the ground. Is this statement
correct? Why?
3. Every country uses only metric system to represent the scale. Do
you agree or disagree to this statement? Why?
 1.8. Methods of Representing of Scale

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
• List the three methods of representing scale;
• Differentiate among the three ways of
representing scale;
• Describe how verbal scale is represented ;
• Choose their preference of scale representing.
 Methods of Representing of Scale

 The three ways of scale representations are:

(1) As an arithmetic ratio (the representative fraction),
(2) As a word statement, or
(3) As a graphic scale.
 As a remark, in a well projected map, many maps include
two or even all three types of scales.
 1. Representative Fraction (R.F) scale

 This is a fraction in which the numerator always assigned the

number 1, denotes a unit of measure (inch, centimeter, feet)
on the map, and the denominator denotes the number of
identical units (same as the map) of actual distance on the
map.
 In other words, an R.F. is a ratio of MAP: LAND.
 A mixture of units cannot be used without changing the
numerical relationship between map and land.
 Representative Fraction may be shown as an actual fraction
(e.g. 1/25,000) or like a mathematical proportion with a
colon (as in 1:25,000).
 The R.F. is perhaps the best way of showing scale since it
avoids mentioning of any unit measurement.
 A large scale map is where the RF is relatively large. An RF of
1:25,000 (1/25,000) is larger than an RF of 1:1,000,000
(1/1,000,000).
 2. Verbal Scale

 It is expressed in words, a relationship between a map

distance and a ground distance.
 This scale is sometimes called statement scale
• e.g. One inch to a mile
Six inches to a mile
Ten miles to an inch
N.B Don’t say one inch =(equal to) one mile
which obviously cannot be true.
 3. Graphic Scale

 It is a pictorial representation of the scale.

 A graphic scale allows a distance measured on the map to be
translated directly into the correct earth distance by
comparing it to the scale.
 Graphic scale is drawn with several primary divisions
towards the right of zero one division with secondary
divisions marked to the left of the zero.
 2000m 6
0 2 8 kms

Secondary division Primary division

Activity
No Expression Ways of scale
representation
1 1/25,000

3 1:10,000

4 One centimeter to a kilometer

 General Division of Scale

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

 List the three divisions of scale;
 Differentiate small scale from large scale;
 Compare the map of small scale from medium scale;
 Distinguish the detail of objects at different scale divisions
 Some remarks on scale division

 The smaller the denominator, the larger the scale.

 A large scale map covers a small area, and vice versa.
 As scale number becomes smaller, the simplification of the
content and graphic symbolization must be increased.
 The larger the number represents the most generalized and
condensed appearance of the reality and the smaller the
number becomes or approaches to more accurate of the
physical features.
Large scale Medium scale Small and very small scale
1:2,000 >1:250,000

1:5,000 >1:50,000 1:1,000,000

1:10,000 1:100,000 1:2,500,000
Eg. For house Plans, 1:200,000
cadastral map, site
plan
1:250,000

1:25,000 -1:50,000 for large For medium scale For small scale maps &
scale topographic map Topographic map geographic maps
World map at very small scale
 Activity

Name the division of scale to be used for the following maps

1. City streets :_____________________
2. Building plan:____________________
3. World Map:______________________
4. Topographic map: ________________
5. Cadastral map:___________________
 Conversion of scale

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
 Convert from one form of scale into another;
 Recognize which conversion more easier and which is
difficult;
 Convert from linear scale in to areal scale,
 1. Statement of scale to R.F

 It is to write the verbal scale as a fraction.

Remember that that 1 mile = 63,360 inches and
1km=100000cms
Example 1: Find out the R.F., when the statement scale is 1cm
to 5kms.
Given: 1cm to 5kms.
 First change 5kms into centimeters to have the same units.
 To do this multiply 5kms by 100,000cms (5  100,000 cms)
 Now leave out the units and put your answer as a ratio, that
is, 1:500,000 or 1/500,000 (R.F. scale)
• Example 2: Find out the R.F., when the scale is 1" to
8miles.
Given: One inch to eight miles (1" to 8miles).
Since the numerator is an inch, the denominator should also
be expressed in inches.
Now, 8 miles = 8 X 63,360 inches (since 1mile=63,360 inches)
= 506,880
Now leave out the units, the R.F will, therefore, be 1: 506,880
or 1/506,880
 2. R.F scale to Statement

 Most verbal scales are either "one inch represents X

miles," or "one centimeter represents X kilometers."
Example 1: The R.F. of a map is 1:500,000. Find out the
statement scale in terms of inches and miles.
In terms of inches, here, 1" represents 500,000 inches
In terms of miles, here 1" represents 500,000
63,360 miles
= 7.89 miles
Hence, the required statement scale is 1" to 7.89 miles
Example 2: The R.F. of a map is 1:126,720. Find out the
statement scale in terms of inch to miles system.
Here 1 inch represents 126, 720 inches
Therefore, 1 inch represents 126,720
63360 miles
= 2 miles
Hence, the required statement scale is 1 inch to 2 miles
 3. Statement of scale to Graphical scale

 We can use the verbal scale like a fraction to transform the

ground distance to map distance.
 Eample 1: Converting verbal scale of "1 cm to 14 km" to a
graphic scale.

 Example 2: Draw a graphical scale for 1" to 4 miles

 4. RF to Graphic Scale

 Here the denominator must be changed in to ground

distance measurement unit, like Kms, miles
Example: convert an RF of 1:250,000 to a graphic scale is:
 5. Graphic Scale to RF

 Here we must take a measurement using ruler from the bar

scale to determine the map distance that corresponds to a
ground distance.

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KILOMETERS
 6. Graphic Scale to verbal scale

 We take measurements of one interval of the primary

division using ruler to represent the map distance
 For more convenient, it is better always to take ruler
measurement from “0” to the next tick mark. Example: 1cm
represents 1kms

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KILOMETERS
 7. Linear scale into areal scale and vice versa

 From the graphical scale, R.F and statement scale, once the
linear scale is known, the areal scale can easily be
determined simply by squaring the linear scale.
 Linear scale in the other way can be defined as the square
root of areal scale.
 Convert the following linear scales into areal scales.
 Linear scale (1/ 100,000), thus, areal scale = (1/100,000) 2 =
1:10,000,000,000
 Activity

1. Convert the following statements of scale into R.F.

a. 4cms to 1 km c. 2 inches to a mile
b. 1cm to 10kms d. One inch to 0.5 mile?
2. Draw graphic scales for the following scale representations
a. 2cm to 2 kms b. 1cm to 4km
c. 1:500,000
3. Calculate the areal scales for the following linear scale
a. 1cm to 5 kms b. 2cm to 1km c. 1/80,000
4. Find the linear scale from the following areal scale
a. 1cm2 to 900 km2 b. 4cm2 to 1km2
 1.9. Map scale enlargement and reduction

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
 Enlarge maps based on the given proportion;
 Reduce maps based on the given proportion;
 Know the formula used to enlarge and reduce a map;
 List the methods of enlargement and reduction of maps.
 Methods of Enlargement & Reduction

 The three methods used to enlarge or reduce maps are:

1. Instrumental method
a) Panthograph b) Camera c) Eidograph
2. Cartographical method
a) The square method b) the similar triangle method
3. Photographical method
This is by the help of camera producing negative
 The square method

• Measuring the size the square and enlarge it by the required proportion

1: 100,000
(original map)

1: 50,000 (enlarged map)

 Similar triangle method

Example: Enlarge 5:7 or reduce 5:2 ratio

 Photographical method

• It is enlarging or reduction by the help of Camera, using the

negative.
Enlargement= Old scale X n times

Reduction= Old scale X 1/n times

• Example: Given that
Original scale = 1:100,000
Degree of enlargement = 2 times
The new scale = 2 X 1/100,000 = 1:50,000
• Example: Given that
Original scale = 1:25,000
Degree of reduction = 4 times
The new scale = 1 X 1 = 1____
4 25,000 100,000
 Activity

1. A map with a scale of 1:25,000 covers an area of 25km by 35km

agricultural plot; if the map is enlarged three times:
a) What will be the sides of the existing and the enlarged map?
b) What will be the area of the existing and the enlarged map?
c) What will be the scale of the enlarged map.
2. If the scale of the original map is 1:200,000, and you need to reduce
five times of the original map, what will be the scale of the new
map?