DNA

THE CODE OF LIFE

RECAP

• Cytoplasm is the base substance in which the organelles of the cell

are suspended.
• Ribosomes are small, round organelles which are mainly found
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or are free-floating in the
cytoplasm. They are the site of protein synthesis and consist of RNA
and protein.
• The nucleus controls all of the cell’s activities.
DNA: The code of life

• All living organisms contain both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and

RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Focus: location, structure and function, discovery of DNA, its role in
the human body and how it replicates.
• Both DNA and RNA are referred to as nucleic acids
• They are made of monomers (building blocks) called nucleotides
• Each nucleotide is made up of:
• A nitrogenous base (NB)
• A sugar portion (S) Deoxyribose in DNA; Ribose in RNA
• A phosphate portion (P)
DNA: The code of life
A brief history of the discovery of DNA (pg. 5)

• Our knowledge of the structure of DNA comes form the theoretical model
put forward by the scientists James Watson and Francis Crick
• Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins also researched on the DNA model
• In 1952 – Rosalind Franklin and her assistant Maurice Wilkins researched
the structure of DNA using X-ray diffraction images.
• Watson and Crick did independent research on DNA. Upon seeing Franklin’s
images, they proposed a 3-D double helix model for DNA in 1953.
• In 1962 – Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the
structure of DNA, and Wilkins received an award for his X-ray photography..
DNA: The code of life
Location of DNA

DNA is found in two locations in a cell:

• Mostly in the nucleus of a cell – this is referred to as nuclear DNA
• A small amount is found outside the nucleus – it is referred to as extra-
nuclear DNA.

• There are two types of extra-nuclear DNA:

1. chloroplastic DNA – found in the chloroplasts of plant cells
2. mitochondrial DNA – found in the mitochondrion (useful for tracing
ancestry)
DNA: The code of life
The structure of DNA

• DNA is made up of monomers called nucleotides

• Each nucleotide is made up of a sugar molecule, phosphate portion
and a nitrogenous base
• The sugar molecule in DNA is called deoxyribose and is attached to
nitrogenous base
• The phosphate and sugar molecules are attached to one another by
strong bonds alternately to form the long chains (polymers)
DNA: The code of life
DNA: The code of life
Four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA:

• adenine (A) cytosine (C)

• thymine (T) guanine (G)

• There are two groups of nitrogenous bases: purines and pyrimidines

• Purines - Adenine and guanine
• Pyrimidines - Cytosine and thymine
DNA: The code of life
Nitrogenous bases are complementary, and always join together in a
specific order:
• adenine always pairs off with thymine (AT)
• guanine always pairs off with cytosine (GC)
DNA: The code of life

• This pairing of bases means that two strands of DNA are joined
together, forming a long ladder-like structure.

• The nitrogenous bases are held together by weak hydrogen bonds.

• The ladder-like structure becomes coiled and is known as a double

helix structure.

• The DNA strands wind around proteins which are known as histones.
DNA: The code of life
The role (function) of DNA
• DNA carries hereditary information in the form of genes.

• Genes are short sections of DNA which code for a specific trait, and
determine the physical characteristics (e.g.blood grouping, a gene linked to
breast cancer)

The main functions of DNA include:

• Controls the functioning of cells
• Regulate the functioning of genes
• Passes on hereditary characteristics
DNA: The code of life
Genes and Non-coding DNA
• Most of the DNA strands do not code for anything and are known as
non-coding DNA.
• Scientists are still researching the importance of the non-coding DNA.
DNA: Replication
DNA Replication
• The process through which DNA makes an identical copy of itself.
• During the interphase of mitosis (Recap on the stages of mitosis)
• IPMAT
DNA: Replication
Significance of DNA replication
• DNA replication is important for cell division, particularly mitosis.
• It allows each chromosome to be copied so that each new identical
daughter cell produced contains the same number and type of
chromosomes
DNA: Replication
Process of DNA replication
• Double helix unwinds
• Weak hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases break
• The two strands unzip/separate
• Each original strand serve as a template to form a new strand
• Free nucleotides build a DNA strand onto each of the original DNA strands,
attaching their complementary nitrogenous bases
• Each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one new strand
• The result is two genetically identical DNA molecules
• Each molecule consists of one original strand and one new strand
• The entire process is controlled by enzymes
DNA: Replication
Errors that occur during DNA replication
• Errors that occur during DNA replication may sometimes lead to
mutations (a change in the nitrogenous base sequence)
• If the incorrect nitrogen base attaches to the original strand and a
nitrogen base is added or deleted …
• the sequence or order of the bases changes on the new DNA molecule …
• resulting in a change in the gene structure
DNA: Profiling
DNA profiling
• A DNA profile is a pattern produced on X-ray film.
• This pattern (extract of DNA) consists of lines which are of different
lengths and thicknesses and in different positions.
• All individuals, except identical twins, have a unique DNA profile
DNA: Profiling
How is a DNA profile made
• By first extracting the DNA sample from the body tissue or fluid such
as hair, blood or saliva.
• The sample is then broken into small pieces
• These small segments of DNA are marked with radioactive probes
and exposed on X-ray film
• The patterns of black bars left behind on the X-ray film is the DNA
profile
DNA: Profiling
DNA profile uses:
• Identify crime suspects in forensic investigations
• Prove paternity (father) and maternity (mother) (biological parents)
• Determine the probability or causes of genetic defects
• Establish the compatibility of tissue types for organ transplants
• Identify relatives

More details on page 12-13

DNA: Profiling
Some debates about DNA profiling
• DNA samples may be planted or a person could be framed with the
use of false evidence
• Human error can lead to false results
• Only a small amount of DNA is analysed so it may not be unique to
one individual
• Testing standards may not be followed in various private labs
• Invasion of privacy and revealing personal information
 RNA
RIBONUCLEIC
ACID
RNA – ribonucleic acid
Location of the RNA

• There are three types of RNA (ribonucleic acid), all formed in the
nucleus by DNA.
• They perform different functions in different places in a cell. The types
are:
• messenger RNA (mRNA) – Found in the nucleus of the cell, but later moves
out to attach to ribosomes.
• ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – found in the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the cell
• transfer RNA (tRNA) – found the cytoplasm of the cell.
RNA – ribonucleic acid
The functions of RNA

• RNA consists of nucleotides which link to form polymers. Nitrogenous

bases found in RNA are adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine

• mRNA carries the code for protein synthesis from DNA to the
ribosome
• rRNA forms ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis
• tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome to form the protein
RNA – ribonucleic acid
Structure of RNA

RNA is similar to DNA except that:

• Is a single stranded structure
• It is not coiled
• The sugar in it is ribose (not deoxyribose)
• The chains are shorter
• Contains Uracil (not thymine)
DNA and RNA
Similarities between DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA are similar in some respects. They both …

• contain sugar alternating with phosphate
• contain the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine and cytosine
• play a role in protein synthesis
DNA and RNA
Protein Synthesis
• The process in which proteins are made is called protein synthesis.
• Proteins are made by linking various amino acids that are present in
the cytoplasm of cells.
• Amino acids are the monomers of proteins.
• There are 20 different amino acids
• The number of amino acids and the sequence of the amino acids
determine the type of protein that is formed.
• The sequence in which amino acids are formed is determined by the
nitrogenous bases in DNA
Protein Synthesis
• When two amino acids combine, the product formed is a dipeptide.
• When three or more amino acids combine, the product formed is a
polypeptide.
• The bond between the proteins is known as peptide bond
• Proteins are long chains of amino acids (polypeptides)
Protein Synthesis
• The smallest protein contains 50 amino acids linked together
• Proteins generally contain 300 or more amino acids.
Base triplets, codons and anti-codons
• Base triplets, codons, and anti-codons are fundamental concepts in
genetics, describing how genetic information is stored and translated
to produce proteins.

• Three consecutive nitrogenous bases on the DNA strand are called the
base triplet.
• The base triplets determine which amino acid will be placed into the
protein as well as the sequence in which the amino acids will be
joined.
Base Triplets

• A triplet refers to a sequence of three nucleotides in DNA.

• Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).
• A triplet is part of the genetic code and specifies a particular amino
acid during protein synthesis.
• For example, the DNA triplet ATG codes for the amino acid methionine.
Codons

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides found in mRNA (messenger RNA),

which is transcribed from DNA. These are opposite to the triplet on DNA
• RNA differs slightly from DNA:
• RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T).
• Codons are read during translation to assemble amino acids into proteins.
• Example of codons:
• AUG: Start codon (also codes for methionine).
• UAA, UAG, UGA: Stop codons (signal the end of translation).
Anti-codons
An anti-codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in tRNA (transfer RNA) these
are opposite to the codon on mRNA

• During translation, the anti-codon binds to its complementary codon on the

mRNA, ensuring the correct amino acid is added to the growing protein chain.

• For example:
• mRNA codon: AUG (methionine).
• tRNA anti-codon: UAC.
Summary of the Relationship
The process of protein synthesis
Protein synthesis occurs in two stages:
• Stage 1: Transcription
• Stage 2: Translation
The process of
protein synthesis
Stage 1 – transcription (formation of messenger RNA)

Occurs in the nucleus

1. A section of the DNA double helix unwinds.
 Weak hydrogen bonds of DNA break forming two single strands of RNA
 The DNA unwinds in the particular section of DNA

2. One strand act as a template

3. This DNA template is used to form complementary strand which is mRNA
 Using free nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
 The mRNA now contains the code for the protein which will be formed
 Three adjacent nitrogenous bases on the mRNA are known as codons. These code for a particular amino acid.

4. mRNA moves out of the nucleus through a nuclear pore into the cytoplasm, where it attaches onto a
ribosome

The process is called transcription

The process of protein synthesis
Stage 2: Translation (Using information from the
MRNA to form protein)
Occurs in the cytoplasm
1. Transfer RNA (tRNA) in the cytoplasm has three adjacent
nitrogenous bases known as the anti-codon
mRNA’s codon will be complementary to a tRNA’s anti-
codon
Each tRNA will carry a specific amino acid
According to the codons on the mRNA, the tRNA will
bring the required amino acid to the ribosome
2. The amino acids are linked by a peptide bond to form
the required protein.
The full process of protein synthesis

Note: it is important to know the difference between base triplets (DNA), codons (mRNA) and anti-codons (tRNA).