1: DNA – the code of life

Introduction

Revision of cellular structure The structure of nucleic acids DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
A brief history of the discovery of DNA

The location of DNA The structure of DNA The role of DNA

Activity 1: DNA RNA – ribonucleic acid
The location of RNA The structure of RNA The role of RNA
Comparison between DNA and RNA DNA replication
Errors that occur during DNA replication

Activity 2: DNA replication

DNA profiling

Activity 3: DNA profiling

• All living organisms contain both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid) – we focus on their location, structure and function.
• We explore the discovery of DNA, its role in the human body and how it
replicates.
• Protein synthesis is vital for life – we examine how proteins are formed by both
DNA and RNA.

CHAPTER 1: DNA
Revision – THE
of cellular CODE OF LIFE
structure
Introduction

It is important to know the location and functions of certain organelles, illustrated in

Figure 1 below.
 cytoplasm
polysomes

ribosomes

nucleus

Figure 1: Structure of a cell

Cytoplasm is the base substance in which the organelles of the cell are
suspended. It is a watery substance and allows for metabolic reactions to take place.
Ribosomes are small, round organelles which are mainly found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum or are free-floating in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes can also be
found inside other organelles such as the chloroplast and mitochondria but in smaller
numbers. They are the site of protein synthesis and consist of RNA and protein.

The nucleus controls all of the cell’s activities.

Figure 2: Parts of the nucleus

A nucleus has four main parts:

• the double nuclear membrane – it encloses the nucleus andnuclear
contains small pores to
The structure of nucleic
allow for the passage acids
of substances membrane
in and out of the nucleus
• the nucleoplasm – this is a jelly-like fluid within the nucleus
nucleoplasm
• the nucleolus – a dark body suspended in the nucleoplasm which contains free
nucleotide bases and produces ribosomes
• the chromatin network – found in the nucleoplasm: contains the DNA which forms
the chromosomes containing the genetic code of a person / organism
nucleolus
nuclear pore
Key terminology
nucleic acid a type of organic compound
monomer a building block
nucleotide the monomer which forms DNA and RNA

There are two types of nucleic acids in the human body – DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Together these form the basis of all life of earth.
They consist of monomers (building blocks) called nucleotides.

The basic structure of a nucleotide is illustrated in Figure 3 below. Each nucleic acid
is composed of a phosphate (P), a sugar molecule (S) and a nitrogenous base (NB).

Figure 3: A nucleotide

Key terminology
• deoxyribonucleic acid is made up of nucleotides
DNA • nitrogenous bases adenine,
DNA P –thymine, guanine
group Sand
A brief–history
deoxyribonucleic acid phosphate –
of the discovery
cytosine of DNA
sugar molecule NB –
• carries the genetic code fornitrogenous
protein synthesis
base
nuclear DNA DNA found in the nucleus
extra- nuclear DNA DNA found outside of the nucleus: mitochondrial and
chloroplastic DNA.
the shape of DNA consists of two strands joined together
double helix
and twisted spirally
hereditary genetic information passed on from parent to offspring

• 1952 – Rosalind Franklin and her assistant Maurice Wilkins researched the structure
of DNA using X-ray diffraction images.
• Watson and Crick did independent research on DNA. Upon seeing Franklin’s images,
they proposed a 3-D double helix model for DNA in 1953.
• 1962 – Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the structure
of DNA, and Wilkins received an award for his X-ray photography. Franklin had
died of cancer.
 Rosalind Franklin – background: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BIP0lYrdirI

DNA is found in two locations in a cell:

• Mostly in the nucleus of a cell – this is referred to as nuclear DNA

• a small amount is found outside the nucleus – it is referred to as extra- nuclear

DNA. There are two types of extra-nuclear DNA:
o chloroplastic DNA – found in the chloroplasts of plant cells
o mitochondrial DNA – found in the mitochondria (useful for tracing
ancestry)

phosphate group

nitrogenous base
The location
Theof DNA of DNA
structure

deoxyribose
sugar

weak hydrogen
bonds

Figure 4A: DNA double helix Figure 4B: DNA – simplified structure

DNA has a double helix structure (Figure 4A), consisting of monomers called
nucleotides which link to form long chains, called polymers. The sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose sugar and is attached to a nitrogenous base. The phosphate and sugar
molecules are attached to one another by strong bonds alternately to form the long
chains (Figure 4B).
There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA:

adenine (A) cytosine (C)

thymine (T) guanine (G)

Nitrogenous bases are complementary, and always join together in a specific order:
• adenine always links to thymine (Figure 5A)

• guanine always links with cytosine (Figure 5B)

 adenine guanine

thymine cytosine

Figure 5A: adenine with thymine Figure 5B: guanine with cytosine

This pairing of bases means that two strands of DNA are joined together, forming a
AT G
C
long ladder-like structure. The nitrogenous bases are held together by weak
The rolebonds.
hydrogen of DNA The ladder-like structure becomes coiled and is known as a double
helix structure. The DNA strands wind around proteins which are known as
histones.

DNA carries hereditary information in the form of genes. Genes are short sections of
DNA which code for a specific trait, and determine the physical characteristics (e.g.
blood grouping, a gene linked to breast cancer) and behaviour of an organism (e.g.
whether an organism can be tamed and domesticated).
Most of the DNA strands do not code for anything and are known as non-coding
DNA. Scientists are still researching the importance of the non-coding DNA.
The main functions of DNA include:
• Controls the functioning of cells
• Regulate the functioning of genes
• Passes on hereditary characteristics

The structure of DNA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1CRrtkWwu0

Activity 1: DNA
The diagram on the next page shows part of a DNA molecule.

1. Label parts 1, 2 and 3 (3)

2. Give the number of nucleotides shown in

the diagram (1)
3. Name two places in an animal cell
where this nucleic acid may
be found. (2)
4. What is the natural shape of
this molecule? (1)
5. Draw a nucleotide with the nitrogenous
base adenine. (4)
(11)
 RNA – ribonucleic acid

Key terminology
RNA consists of nucleotides. Nitrogenous bases found in
RNA
RNA are adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine
mRNA carries the code for protein synthesis from DNA to the
messenger RNA
ribosome
ribosomal RNA rRNA forms ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis
transfer RNA tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome to form the protein

There are three types of RNA (ribonucleic acid), all formed in the nucleus by DNA.
They perform different functions in different places in a cell. The types are:
• messenger RNA (mRNA)
• ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed in the nucleus but then enters the
cytoplasm where it attaches to ribosomes.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the cell.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) is found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Like DNA, RNA also consists of monomers (nucleotides) which link to form longer
chains (polymers).
However, RNA is a single-stranded structure which is not coiled. The sugar in
RNA is ribose and is attached to a nitrogenous base. The phosphate and sugar
molecules are attached to one another alternately to form the chains.
The structure of RNA is illustrated in Figure 6 below.

phosphate group
The location of RNA ribose sugar
The structure of RNA

nitrogenous
base

Figure 6: RNA – note the chain formed by the

phosphate and sugar molecules on the left,
and the nitrogenous bases on the right.

There are four types of nitrogenous bases in RNA:

adenine (A)
uracil (U) – not thymine as in DNA

cytosine (C) guanine (G)

The three types of RNA are very important to the process of protein synthesis, with
each type playing a unique role.

DNA and RNA are similar in some respects. They both …

• contain sugar alternating with phosphate
• contain the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine and cytosine
The role of RNA
DNA replication
Comparison between
• play a role in protein DNA and RNA
synthesis

DNA and RNA also have significant differences, tabulated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: The main differences between DNA and RNA.

 DNA RNA
contains deoxyribose sugar contains ribose sugar
double helix and coiled single stranded
contains the nitrogenous base thymine contains the nitrogenous base uracil
found in the nucleus, ribosomes and
found in the nucleus only
cytoplasm of cells

A comparison DNA and RNA. It is very important to know the differences.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Elo-zX1k8M

DNA replication is the process through which DNA makes an identical copy of itself.
This occurs during interphase of the cell cycle in the nucleus. In Figures 7A to 7E, a
small portion of DNA is shown undergoing replication.

1. The DNA double helix unwinds (Figure 7A)

Figure 7A

Figure 7B
3. Each original DNA strand serves as a template on which its complement is built (Figure 7C)
2.
The weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases are broken. The DNA strands separate (they
unzip)(Figure 7B)
4. Free nucleotides build a DNA strand onto each of the original DNA strands, attaching their
complementary nitrogenous bases (A to T and C to G) (Figure 7D)

Figure 7C Figure 7D

5. This results in two identical DNA molecules. Each molecule consists of one original
Errors
strand that occur
and one during
new strand DNA
(Figure 7E). replication

Figure 7E
 Figure 7A – 7E: The process of DNA replication

DNA replication is important for cell division, particularly mitosis. It allows each
chromosome to be copied so that each new identical daughter cell produced
contains the same number and type of chromosomes.

• Errors that occur during DNA replication may sometimes lead to mutations (a change
in the nitrogenous base sequence)
• If the incorrect nitrogen base attaches to the original strand and a nitrogen base is added
or deleted …
o the sequence or order of the bases changes on the new DNA molecule …
o resulting in a change in the gene structure

DNA replication: Understand the process.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqe4thU-os8

Activity 2: DNA
DNA replication
profiling
Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

4
A 1
G

1. Name the process illustrated in the diagram above. (1)

2. State the significance of the process mentioned in question 1. (1)

3. Identify the parts labelled as 1, 2, 3 and 4. (4)

4. Describe how this process takes place. (6)

5. Give one location of extra-nuclear DNA. (1) (13)

 A DNA profile is a pattern produced on X-ray film. This pattern consists of lines
which are of different lengths and thicknesses and in different positions, as shown
in Figure 8. All individuals, except identical twins, have a unique DNA profile.

Victim CSS Suspect 1 Figure 8:2DNA profiles

Suspect Suspectfor
3 three different
Suspect 4
individuals.

DNA profiles are used to:

• identify crime suspects in forensic investigations
• prove paternity (father) and maternity (mother) (biological parents)
• determine the probability or causes of genetic defects
• establish the compatibility of tissue types for organ transplants
• identify relatives

DNA profiling is generally accepted as being extremely reliable. The interpretation

and comparison of profiles should however be approached with caution, for the
following reasons:
• Humans interpret the results which means mistakes could be made

• The method of profiling may be different in different laboratories producing

inconsistencies
• Only a small piece of DNA is used in profiling, so the profile might not be 100%
unique to a particular individual
• DNA profiling is expensive and therefore not readily accessible to those who cannot
afford it, particularly in criminal cases
• DNA profiles may reveal information about a person which could be used against
them in a prejudicial way. For example: being HIV positive or having genetic
abnormalities may lead to insurance companies not covering a person or prejudice
in the court room

Activity 3: DNA profiling

DNA profiles from a crime scene.
In a fight involving a number of people, one person was seriously injured. Police took
blood samples from the victim, the crime scene (CSS – crime scene sample) and
four suspects. The DNA was then extracted from each sample. The results of these
tests are shown in the diagram above.

1. Which suspect probably injured the victim? (1)

2. Give a reason for your answer to the previous question. (1)

3. List one application of DNA profiling other than for solving crime. (1)

4. Give two reasons why DNA profiling may sometimes be challenged. (2)
(5)