Title: A2.

2: Cell structure (Pages 49-79) Date: 05/05/2023

LI: To be able to explain the features of cells

Starter tasks:

Describe the function of the

following organelles:
• Mitochondria
• Ribosome
• Cell membrane

Keywords: Nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi, ribosomes, cell membrane

 Useful Website
https://www.biologyforlife.com/cellstructure.html
 Title: A2.2: Cell structure Date: 05/05/2023

LI: To be able to explain the features of cells

Answers
• Mitochondria: site of
aerobic respiration
(release energy).
• Ribosome: Site of protein
synthesis.
• Cell membrane: controls
the movement of
substances in and out.

Keywords: Nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi, ribosomes, cell membrane

 • A2.2.1: cells as the basic structural unit of life.
• A2.2.2: Microscopy skills
• A2.2.3: Development of microscopes
What • A2.2.4: Structures which are common to cells in all living
things

you need
• A2.2.5: Structure of prokaryotic cells
• A2.2.6: Eukaryotic cell structure
• A2.2.7: Processes of life in unicellular organisms
to know • A2.2.8: Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between
animal, fungi and plants

in this
• A2.2.9: Atypical structures in eukaryotes
• A2.2.10: Cell types and structures viewed in light and
electron microscopes

unit? • A2.2.11: Drawing and annotating based on electron

micrographs.
• A2.2.12: Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis
• A2.2.13: Cell differentiation as the process for developing
specialised tissues in organisms
• A2.2.14: Evolution of multicellular organisms
 Cell structure
Guiding questions:

What features are common to all

cells and what differs?

How microscopy is used to

identify cell features?
 Cytology
What do you think
´CYTOLOGY´ is the study of?

Cytology is the study of cells.

This area of research is
extremely active in labs across
the world, and has given us a
good understanding of the
structure of cells.
 Recap: Cell theory
Remember, cell theory states:
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells
 Cells are the smallest unit of life
 All cells come from pre-existing cells

The development of powerful microscopes has

been vital in our understanding of how cells work.
 Cells and the microscope
Cells are very small and often require
microscopes with high magnification and
resolution to be visible. Key definitions:
The two most commonly used microscopes are Magnification: the number of
light microscopes and electron microscopes. times larger an image is than
the object e.g. x500.
Both have their uses , and have been pivotal in
helping us understand the structure of cells. Resolution: The minimum
distance between two points at
which they can still be
distinguished.
Task: List as many differences as you know
between light and electron microscopes.
What are these? Name some differences between
them?
This is a simple light microscope,
where as that one is an electron
microscope.

Photo taken by Miss Lewell at Musee d'Histoire des

Sciences, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
 Light and electron microscopes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eu43Mcs714I

Note: You are most likely familiar with the workings of a light
microscope. These are widely used in schools.
 Light and electron microscopes
Light microscopes Electron microscopes
Inexpensive Expensive
Simple specimen prep Preparation of specimens is very
complex
Magnifies up to x2000 Magnifies up to x500,000
Specimens can be dead or alive Specimens have to be dead
 Units of measurement
• What is a centimetre?
– 10-2 metres (0.01m)
• What is a millimetre? (0.001 m)
– 10-3 metres
• What about a micrometre (μm)?
– 1/1000th of a millimetre (0.001 mm) OR 10-6 metres
(0.000001 m)
• And what about a nanometre (nm)?
– 1/1000th (0.001 um) of a micrometre OR 10-9 metres
(0.000000001 m)
 Converting units

mm μm nm
x1000 x1000

÷1000 ÷1000
A representation of
what can used to
visualise different
structures which are
important in biology.
 Drawing cells
Drawing cells and cell structures as seen under a light microscope:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HElwooECl2Y
-It is important to follow the rules of drawing.
-The drawing shows the magnified structures. The whole drawing should have
the same magnification (in order to maintain the proportions of the
dimensions).
-No unnecessary details and only faint shading.
-Use sharp pencils with sharp lead.
-Join lines carefully so that the structure is continuous.
-Do not use a ruler except for label lines.
 Measuring sizes using an eyepiece graticule
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZX38mTbU6dM
 MAGNIFICATION
Remember:
Image
1000 nm (nanometres) = 1 μm
(micrometre)

1000 μm (micrometres) = 1 mm
(millimetre)

MIA
 Conversions
Remember:
1m=100 cm
1cm=10mm
1mm= 1000 µm
1mm=1000000nm
1 µm= 1000nm
Example: the length of an image is 50 mm. It represents a structure with an actual size of 5 µm.
Determine the magnification of the image.
Answer:
50 mm = 50, 000 µm.

50, 000 /5 = 10,000 x.

 Example 1
An object in a picture has been magnified
x31000 and measures 43mm in length. What is
it’s actual size, in nm?
Object size = image ÷ magnification
= 43 ÷ 31000
= 0.001387 mm
x 1000 = 1.387µm
x 1000 = 1387 nm
 Example 2
An object is 2680nm in length. It has been
magnified x 25000. What will it measure as an
image, in mm?

image size = object size x magnification

= 2680 x 25000
= 6.7 x 107 nm
÷ 1000 = 6.7 x 104 µm
÷ 1000 = 67 mm
HOW TO CALCULATE MAGNIFICATION
FROM A SCALE BAR
HOW TO CALCULATE MAGNIFICATION FROM A
SCALE BAR
• Measure the length of
the scale bar in mm
• Convert from mm to µm
• Divide the length in µm
by the length written on
scale bar to find the
magnification
 Advanced microscopy
Since the development of the first microscope
by Robert Hooke in 1665, there has been
tremendous advancements in microscope
technology.

In this next section we will look at the

following techniques:
• Electron microscopes
• TEM
• SEM
• Freeze-fracture
• Cryogenic electron microscopy
• Fluorescence stains and
Robert Hooke´s first microscope
immunofluorescence
 Electron microscopes
Early microscopes were largely light microscopes,
which would have poor resolution at higher
magnification. The development of electron
microscopes in 1931, allowed scientist to study
cell structures which were once never visible.

Electron microscopes use beams of electrons

instead of light. Electron beams have a much Key definitions:
shorter wavelength, providing a much greater
Resolving power: is the ability of
resolving power. a lens to distinguish between
two lines
There are two types of electron microscope that you need to
know about:
1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
 Transmission electron microscope

• A beam of electrons is
transmitted through a
specimen and focused to
produce an image.
• Similar to light microscopy.
• Has excellent resolution
(resolving power of 0.5
nm).
• Has magnification of up to
500,000
 Scanning electron microscope

• A beam of electrons is sent

across the surface of a
specimen and the reflected
electron are collected.
• Has good resolution
(resolving power of 3-10
nm).
• Has magnification of up to
100,000
• Can produce 3-D images
 Artefacts
Artifacts are structures that are produced due
to the perpetration process, they are not
actually a feature of the specimen.

Artifacts can be found in light microscopy too.

Bubbles trapped under the cover slip are
artifacts.

Artifacts are inevitable in electron microscopy.

Experience allows scientists to distinguish
between artifacts and actual structures.
 Freeze-fracture
Freeze-fracture is a process of preparing a
sample for electron microscopy. The
process is relatively simple:
• The specimen is rapidly frozen
• It is then physically broken apart

This reveals a plane through a sample.

This technique was vital in understanding
the structure of the cell membrane
 Cryogenic electron microscopy
This is a recent advancement in
electron microscopy, which has been
revolutionary in understanding the
structure of viruses and other cellular
proteins.

Specimens are frozen in ice using very

low temperatures and 3D computer
aided structures are created.
 Where´s the colour from?
You may have noticed that all the
images we have seen of electron
microscopy seem a bit dull!.

This is because electron

microscopes produces black and
white images. Scientific illustrators
sometimes add colour to these
images to help us distinguish
between the structures.
 Fluorescence and immunofluorescence
When studying living organisms, your only options are light microscopes.
For different structures within the cell to be seen, they must first be
stained.

 Fluorescence: Cells are stained with special dyes that bind to specific
cellular components. When UV light is shown on the specimen, the
parts that the dye bind to fluoresce.
 Immunofluorescence: antibodies combined with the dye are added to
the specimen. The antibodies bind to their target. This allows specific
parts of the cell to be visible when UV light is shone.
Cell structure
 Structures common to all cells
In this section, we will look at the structure eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells. However, some structures are common to all
cell types.
These are:
 DNA: as their genetic information
 Cytoplasm: mainly composed of water
 Plasma membrane: composed of phospholipids which
surround the cytoplasm.
 Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are believed to have been among the first life forms on Earth.

They are simpler than eukaryotes, with the theory of endosymbiosis suggesting that eukaryotes evolved
from larger prokaryotes that engulfed smaller, specialized prokaryotes.

• 10-100 microns in size

• Single-celled (unicellular) or
• Filamentous (strings of single cells)
• Bacterial division: Binary fission
 The nucleoid region
• The structure of DNA is the same as in eukaryotes but it is
packaged differently.
• It consists of one supercoiled chromosome
• Its genes are grouped into operons – clusters of genes that are
switched on or off together
• Plasmids – transfer DNA between different bacteria
 Ribosomes- 70s
• Smaller than those in
eukaryotes
• Eukaryotic ribosomes are
designated 80S, prokaryotic 70S
• Consist of a large and small
subunit – made of RNA and
protein
• Same function however –
protein synthesis
 Cell Wall
• Prokaryotic cell walls are
made of peptidoglycan
(murein)
• This is a polymer formed
from amino acids and sugars
• Some prokaryotes have a
capsule, which surrounds
the cell wall
• Many antibiotics work by
targeting the cell wall
Eukaryotic cells: Compartmentalisation

All eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure, wherein membranes are used to
isolate certain parts of the cell from the rest to form separate organelles. For instance, the
inside of the mitochondrion is completely sealed from the cytoplasm by the mitochondrial
envelope, allowing it to carry out reactions without being affected by other reactions occurring
in the cell.

● Internal conditions such as pH can be differentiated in a cell to maintain the optimal

conditions for different enzymes.
● Isolation of toxic or damaging substances away from the cytoplasm, such as the storage of
hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes.
● Flexibility of changing the numbers and position of organelles within the cell based on the
cell’s requirements.
Ultrastructure of a eukaryotic cell – an
animal cell.
Ultrastructure of a eukaryotic cell – a
plant cell
 The Nucleus
Chromatin

Nucleolus

Nuclear
Envelope
 Nucleus – Structure & Function
• Nucleus – houses nearly all the cell’s
genetic material
• Chromatin – consists of DNA and
proteins
• Nucleolus – makes RNA, which is
made into ribosomes and ribosomes
• Nuclear envelope – has nuclear
pores going through the envelope to
let relatively large molecules pass
through. In the nuclear envelope
there is nucleoplasm.
 Nucleus – The Facts
• The largest organelle in the cell
• Consists chromatin which contains DNA and proteins
• Chromatin is seen as darkened patches when seen on a light
micrograph
• Some of these proteins regulate the cell’s activity
• Makes ribosomes
• Has holes called nuclear pores which allow exchange of
substances in and out of the cell
 Nucleolus – The Facts
• The most obvious structure in the nucleus is the nucleolus
• The nucleolus produces ribosomes, which move out of the
nucleus to latch onto the outside of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum where they produce proteins
 Nuclear envelope
• It is a dense spherical structure
• Surrounds the nucleolus
• A structure made of two membranes
(inner and outer) with fluid separating
them
• The nuclear envelope is marked with
nuclear pores which allow for exchange of
relatively large molecules
 Mitochondria
These organelles are about the same size as a
bacterial cells. They have the following
structures:
• They contain their own DNA.
• They have a double membrane: The outer
membrane was smooth, the inner
membrane is folded (cristae) which
provides a large surface area to create ATP.
• The fluid inside the inner membrane is the
matrix.
 Ribosomes- 80s
• They are tiny organelles which can be found in cytoplasm or bound to
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Each ribosome consists of two sub-units.
• They are the site of protein synthesis in a cell, which is where proteins
are made. It acts as an assembly line for coded information form the
nucleus to be used to make proteins from amino acids.
Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi Apparatus is a stack of
membrane- bound flattened sacs.
• Its single membrane is similar to that
of a cell membrane in that it has two
layers.
• Its membrane surrounds an area of
fluid where the complex molecules
are stored and changed.
 Golgi Apparatus - Function
• Golgi Apparatus receives proteins from the ER
and modifies them.
• It may add sugar molecules to them.
• The Golgi apparatus then packages the
modified proteins into vesicles that can be
transported.
• Some modified proteins may go to the surface
of the cell so that they may be secreted.
 Lysosomes- Not in plants
• They are spherical sacs surrounded by a single membrane.
• They are specialised vesicles
• They contain powerful hydrolytic digestive enzymes and their role is to
break down materials.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Consists of a series if flattened membrane – bounds sacs called
cisternae.
• They are studded with ribosomes.
• It transports proteins that were made on the attached ribosomes.
• Some of the proteins will be secreted by the cell whilst the others
will be placed on the surface of the cell membrane.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
They have the same structure as a rough endoplasmic reticulum but it does not have
ribosomes. It has several roles
• Making of phospholipids and cellular lipids
• Productions of sex hormones such as oestrogen
• Detoxification of drugs in the liver
• Storage of Calcium ions in the muscle, which are needed for muscular contraction
• Helping the liver release glucose into the blood when needed.
 Cytoskeleton
• Centrioles are
self-replicating organelles made
up of nine bundles of
microtubules and are found only
in animal cells.
• They help in organizing cell
division, but aren't always
needed in the process:
• The role of the cytoskeleton is to:​
• Provide mechanical strength to cells​
• Aid transport within cells​
 Vacuole
Vacuoles are formed in the Golgi
apparatus. They occupy a very large
space in plant cells, but can be small
and numerous in animal cells. They
have a number of roles:
 Storage of nutrition in plant cells.
 Metabolise toxins for removal
 Uptake of water to provide rigidity
 When large, it is referred to a
central vacuole.
 Chloroplast
These organelles are found in plant cells and are larger than mitochondria.
• Surrounded by a double-membrane
• Membrane-bound compartments
called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form structures called grana
• Grana are joined together by lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes)
• Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis:
Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise
proteins needed in chloroplast replication and photosynthesis
Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
 Retrieval questions

State the equation to calculate the real State the function of the rough What are ribosomes made of?
size of an object endoplasmic reticulum.
RNA and proteins
Real image = Magnification x Transports proteins synthesised by the
Size of image ribosomes attached to it

Identify where in the cell ribosomes are Explain what an artefact is. Explain how RNA is able to leave the
produced nucleus but DNA isn’t.
A visible structure caused by the
Nucleolus
staining/fixing process, not a feature of
the specimen RNA is smaller than the nuclear
pores, DNA is larger

Name two organelles which are found in Explain the difference between cytoplasm Explain how a vesicle is moved through a
animal cells but not in plant cells and cytosol cell
Cytoplasm is everything within the cell It attaches to the cytoskeleton
Chloroplast membrane (excluding the nucleus), whereas
Vacuole (microtubule) by the motor protein and
cytosol is the fluid component of the
Centrioles cytoplasm that fills the cell (it is made of
the polymerisation of the microtubule
Lysosomes water, salts and organic molecules). pulls the vesicle along
Unicellular organisms
 FUNCTIONS OF LIFE
Metabolism- chemical reactions take place within the cells of living organisms.
Reproduction- production of offspring, (sexually or asexually) to pass on genetic information
Sensitivity- A reaction by the living organism to changes in the external environment. (E.g.
light, temp)
Homeostasis- maintenance of a constant internal environment by regulating internal cell
conditions
Excretion- removal of waste products and other unimportant materials
Nutrition- exchange materials and gases with the environment
Growth- increase in size or shape over time
Movement: the ability to change position
 UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS
All living things can be
classified as:
• unicellular (single-celled)
or
• multicellular (many-
celled)
• based on the number of
cells that they possess
UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

All unicellular organisms

carry out all the functions of
life in their cells.

They have a unique way of

carrying out life compared
to multicellular organisms.
 Features of unicellular organisms
• Cell membrane controls the • Digestion takes place in the
movement of substances in and vacuole, so the organism can
out of the cell. obtain nutrients.
• The vacuole is isolated and • Mitochondria or areas rich in
stores toxic substances, so the enzymes allow for energy
organism is not harmed. production.
• Cells contain cilia or flagella • The contain ribosomes which
which aide movement in synthesis proteins.
response to changes in the
environment.
Different types of eukaryotic cells
Animal, Plant and Fungal cells: Eukaryotic cells
We have gone through the different
components of eukaryotic cells, however,
there is great variety. Eukaryotic cells are
classified as 3 different organisms:
 Animal
 Plant
 Fungal
Fungal cells are believed to be the first
eukaryotic cells on the planet, with over
14,000 species currently identified. Note: Many of the structures of eukaryotic cells which
we have studied are found in all 3 cell types, however
you do need to be familiar with the differences.
 Atypical eukaryotic cells
Some eukaryotic cells are referred to as Research task:
being atypical because they have
For each of the atypical cells listed,
unique structures that allow them to
carry out specific functions. Examples
please research what makes them
include: atypical cells.
 Hyphae (fungal) You should include:
 Pholem sieve tube (plant)  The function of the cell
 Companion cells (plant)  The structure it contains which
 Straited muscle cells (animal) makes it atypical.
 Giant algae (plant)  How the unique structure allows
 Nerve cells (animal) the cell to do it´s job.
 Analysing electron micrographs
Electron micrographs are
images produced by electron
microscope.

For this course you will have to

be able to identify a number of
organelles from electron
micrographs.
 Analysing electron micrographs
Over the next few slides you will see electron micrographs. You will need to identify the following
structures:
 Nucleoid region
 Prokaryotic cell wall
 Nucleus
 Mitochondria
 Chloroplast
 Sap vacuole
 Golgi apparatus
 RER
 SER
 Ribosomes
 Cell wall
 Cell membrane
 Microvilli
What is the structure?
Chloroplast
What is the structure?
Mitochondria
What is the structure?
Golgi
What is the structure?
Cell wall
What is the structure?
Sap Vacuole
What is the structure?
RER
What is the structure?
Nucleoid region
Drawing and annotating electron micrographs
Scientific drawings are different
from artistic drawings.
In this section you will learn the
rules involved in producing a clear
annotated scientific drawing.

Remember you don´t need to be an

artist to produce a scientific
drawing.
The origins of eukaryotic
cells
 Endosymbiosis (HL only)
• Many scientists theorise that eukaryotes
evolved from prokaryote ancestors.
• in 1981, Lynn Margulis popularised the
“endosymbic theory.”
– a prokaryote ancestor “ingests” a smaller
prokaryote
– the smaller prokaryote evolves a way to avoid
being digested, and lives inside its new “host” cell
kind of like a pet.
 Endosymbiosis (HL only)
• The small prokaryotes that can do photosynthesis evolve into
chloroplasts, and “pay” their host with glucose.
• The smaller prokaryotes that can do aerobic respiration evolve
into mitochondria, and convert the glucose into energy the cell
can use.
• Both the host and the symbiont benefit from the relationship.
– Chlorella are tiny green cells that live inside some amoeba...
endosymbiosis may still be evolving today!
 Evidence for endosymbiotic theory
The evidence to support the endosymbiotic theory arises from the features
that the mitochondria and chloroplasts have in common with prokaryotes:

o Both reproduce by binary fission

o Both contain their own circular, non-membrane bound DNA
o They both transcribe mRNA from their DNA
o They both have 70S ribosomes to synthesise their own proteins
o They both have double membranes
o They have a similar size to most bacterial cells
 Multicellularity (HL only)
In the previous chapter (A2.1) we
looked at the origins of life (see image
to the right). Through endosymbiotic
theory and compartmentalisation of
organelles we have an idea of how
single-celled organisms formed.

However, these organisms had their

limitations. Resulting in evolution multi-
cellular organisms 1.2 billion years ago.
 Emergent properties
The presence of eukaryotic organisms Key terms:
formed of many cells, eventually led • Cells are be grouped together to form
to the differentiating of cells into tissues
highly specialised tissues and organs. • Organs are then formed from the
functional grouping of multiple tissues
• Organs that interact may form organ
The interaction between these
systems capable of carrying out
specialised cells, led to organisms specific body functions
having properties that they would
• Organ systems collectively carry out
not have had a unicellular organisms the life functions of the complete
organism
Note: All cells of an organism have the same DNA,
differentiation is caused by changes in gene
expression
 Summary of Chapter A2.2
• All organisms are composed of • Organelles found in the cytoplasm of
cells eukaryotic cells.
• Variation of cell structure results in
• Features common to all cells
unique cellular compositions such as
include DNA, cytoplasm and a atypical cells
cell membrane • Endosymbiosis as an explanation for
• Prokaryotic cells lack membrane the development of eukaryotic cells (HL
bound organelles only)
• Differentiation is caused by changes in
• Eukaryotic cell organelles are
gene expression (HL only)
compartmentalised by • Multicellularity resulted in emergent
membranes properties (HL only)