CAMERA AND ITS

ACCESSORIES
 CAMERA

- is basically nothing more than a light tight box with a pinhole or a

lens, shutter at one end and a holder of sensitized material at the
other. While there are various kinds of camera from the simplest
construction (Box-type) to the most complicated, all operate on
the same principles. The exposure of the sensitized material to
light is controlled by the lens and its aperture, and the shutter
through its speed in opening and closing the lens to light.
TYPES OF CAMERA
CAMERA OBSCURA
CAMERA LUCIDA
PINHOLE CAMERA
- Camera w/o lens but with tiny aperture.
BOX CAMERA
VIEW FINDER TYPE CAMERA
- Smallest and Simpliest type of camera.
 View or Press Type Camera
- Biggest and Expensive type of camera and it’s used
for movie making.
 POLARIOD STILL
- This camera is restricted in its uses but ideal in instant
photograph when there is no requirement for enlargements.
 UNDER-WATER CAMERA
- Water proof camera and used for under water photography.
WIDE VIEW ANGLE CAMERA
- A camera with a wide-angle lens that produces a rectangular
image that is designed for landscape photography and
architectural photography.
PANORAMIC CAMERA
- Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by
encompassing a 120®, 180®, or 360® view of one exposure.
STILL VIDEO CAMERA
- Images can be stored in video tapes equipment with a floppy
disc, a disc that can hold about 50 images or more.
REFLEX CAMERAS
SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA (SLR)
- it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens
TWIN/DUAL LENS REFLEX CAMERA
- A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other
for forming the image.
• PARALLAX
- The difference between what is seen through the
viewfinder and what is exactly recorded on the film.
DIGITAL CAMERA (DIGI CAM)
- is a camera that encodes digital images and videos digitally and
stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today are
digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices
ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to
vehicles.
1975 KODAK DIGITAL CAMERA PROTOTYPE
- Created in 1975 by Steve Sasson, an engineer at Kodak, the first
ever digital camera was a fairly rudimentary affair compared to
what we use today.
1994 APPLE QUICKTAKE 100
- The first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that
worked with a home computer via a serial cable were the Apple
Quick Take 100 camera.
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF CAMERA
BODY OR LIGHT TIGHT BOX
- a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold
other parts.
– suggest an enclosure devoid or light. An enclosure, which would
prevent light from exposing the sensitized material inside the
camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or enclosure
to always light tight at all the time because if it does, then no light
could reach the sensitized material during exposure. It means that
before and after the extraneous light, which is not necessary to
form the final images.
 LENS
- It’s designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an
object to form an image on the film.It is chiefly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during
the exposure.
 SHUTTER
- It’s designed to control the time during which the light reaches
the film.
 FOCAL PLANE SHUTTER CENTRAL SHUTTER
- located near the focal plane - located near the lens leaves
usually made from cloth curtain usually made of metal which
which open on one side and opens from the center towards
closes on the other side. the sides closes vis-a-vis.
 HOLDER OR SENSITIZED MATERIALS
– located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to hold
firmly the sensitized material in its placed during exposure to
prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the
subject.
 VIEW FINDER
- designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the
extent of the coverage of the lens.
MAIN PARTS OF DIGITAL CAMERA
1. CAMERA LENS – A lens is a merely a carefully ground or
molded piece of transparent material that refracts light rays in such
a way as to form an image.

2. APERTURE – It is the opening within a lens that controls

how much light hits the image sensor. It may be fixed or
variable opening which controls the amount of light coming
through the lens.

3. CAMERA IMAGE SENSOR – An image sensor is a solid-

state device, the part of the camera’s hardware that captures light
and converts what you see through a viewfinder or LCD monitor
into an image.
4. CAMERA SHUTTER – In photography and digital
photography applications, the shutter is the device on the camera
that open and closes to control how long the focal plane is
exposed to light.
5. SHUTTER SPEED – is the duration of time generally
expressed in seconds for during which any type of shutter remains
fully open for exposure.
6. FOCUSING CONTROL – focusing is an integral part of any
camera operation. Whether you are using a basic point-and-shoot
model, or something that enables you to fine-tune your focusing,
picking the right mode and getting the sharpness where you want
it is the difference between a poor image and a stunning one.
7. VIEW FINDER - The viewfinder is one of the most important
parts of a camera. It is a rectangular-shaped part at the back of
your camera that lets you see and frame your subject. Some
viewfinders are fully digital, which shows you various details like
your shutter speed, aperture, and ISO before you take the shot.
8. LCD MONITOR – The LCD monitor is used to view the
menus and camera settings, playback captured images and
videos, and also frame your shot (when using Live View). Some
LCD monitors are also touch screens, making it easier to interface
with your camera.
9. BUILT IN FLASH – When needed, you can fire the flash to
capture a shot in a dimly lit scene. The flash may be automatically
fired in some modes.
10. MAIN DIAL - The main dial is a cogwheel situated on the
front part of the camera that allows you to adjust aperture,
shutter speed, exposure compensation, and other
parameters. On some cameras, the main dial can help you
navigate through the images on the memory card.

11. MODE DIAL - A mode dial is one of the most used parts of
the camera. It is a small cogwheel situated on the top-right of the
camera that switches between the camera’s modes (i.e., ways of
operating). Additionally, a camera may have multiple modes,
including manual, automatic, and semiautomatic settings, and
scene- based.
12. BATTERIES (Compatible rechargeable batteries) - the
battery is one of the most important parts of the camera. Most of
its components will not work if not powered by one. Having a long-
lasting battery lets you shoot more photos and shoot for extended
periods, allowing you to find the perfect shot.

13. SD (SECURE DIGITAL) CARDS

LABORATORY ACTIVITY
LENS
- The basic function of a camera lens is to "gather" light rays from
a subject, form and focus those rays into an image, and project
this image onto film inside the camera. Optical glass can bend or
change the direction of light rays that pass through it. When a
piece of glass is shaped with concave or convex surfaces, light
rays may be directed up, down, or straight, depending on the
configuration of the lenses.

- A mechanism or system which converges or diverges light

passing through it to form image.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF IMAGE TO BE
PRODUCED
 POSITIVE or CONVEX LENS (CONVERGING LENS)

- Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center and

thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light together
and forms the image inversely.
NEGATIVE or CONCAVE LENS (DIVERGING LENS)

- Characterized by the fact that it is THINNER at the center and

THICKER at the side and forms the virtual image on the same
side of the lens.
ACCORDING TO DEGREE OF
CORRECTIONS
 MENISCUS LENS

- Lens that has no correction.

RAPID RECTILINEAR LENS

- Lens corrected of distortion.

 ANASTIGMAT LENS

- Lens correcting astigmatism.

 ACHROMATIC LENS

- Lens correcting chromatic aberration.

 APOCHROMATIC LENS

- Lens correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS
 1. FOCAL LENGTH

- is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens

is set to focus at infinite position. Focal lenses may be
classified as:
A. WIDE ANGLE or SHORT FOCUS LENS

- with focal length not longer than diagonal half of the

negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider
coverage (<35mm).
B. NORMAL OR MEDIUM FOCUS LENS

- with focal length approximately equal but not longer than

twice the diagonal half of the negative (>35<70mm).
C. LONG OR TELEPHOTO LENS

- with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the
negative. Best used in long distance photography but with narrow
area coverage (>70mm).
D. ZOOM LENS

- lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted

continuosly by the movement of one or more elements in the lens
system. A combination of POSITIVE and NEGATIVE LENS.
 2. RELATIVE APERTURE

- the light gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-

number system. It is it is otherwise called the relatives aperture.
By increasing or decreasing the F-number numerically, it is
possible to:
a. control the amount of light passing through the lens
b. control the depth of field
c. control the degree of sharpness due to the lens defects.
 A. DEPTH OF FIELD

– is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest

object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused
at a particular distance.
 B. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE

- is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given

particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth
of field.
C. DEPTH OF FOCUS

- refers to the distance toward and away from the film that the
lens can be moved when at a given f-value, and have the object
being photographed still appear in focus.
 3. FOCUSING

- is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp

image. The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the
object.
INHERENT LENS DEFECTS
 1. ASTIGMATISM

- A form of defects in which

horizontal and vertical lines are not
equally magnified. The inability of the
lens to bring to focus both vertical
and horizontal lines on the same
plane. Astigmatism is caused by axial
rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will
appear that lines of equal density
(darkness) are less dense horizontally
or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by
stopping down the lens (smaller lens
opening, larger F number).
 2.COMA
(LATERAL ABERRATION)
- Inability of the lens to
focus light that travels
straight or lateral, thus
making it blurred while the
light reaching the lens
oblique is the one trasmitted
sharp. Coma can be
improved by stopping down
the lens.
 3. CURVATURE OF FIELD
- The plane of sharpest focus
becomes curved, not flat. It is
caused by rays from the outer
limits of the subject plane
coming to focus nearer to the
lens than the axial rays (image
comes to focus in curved
shape, away from the CCD).
This defect is not improved by
stopping down the lens.
 4. LONGITUDINAL CHROMATIC
ABERRATION
- The inability of a lens to
focus all colors (wavelengths)
at the same plane on the lens
axis (shorter wavelengths come
to focus in front of the CCD,
longer behind). This defect is
not improved by stopping down
the lens. This is normally only
noticeable in long telephoto
lenses.
 5. LATERAL CHROMATIC
ABERRATION
- lateral displacement of color
images at the focal plane
(CCD). Caused by different
sizes of images by produced by
different colors even though the
image is all on the same plane
(CCD). Produces color fringing
of red or blue. Not improved by
stopping down.
6. SPHERICAL ABERRATION
- Inability of the lens
to focus light passing
the side of the lens
producing an image
that is sharp in the
center and blurred to
the side.
 7. DISTORTION
- It is a defect in shape not in
sharpness. It can be either be
PINCUSHION DISTORTION
(CURVING OUTWARD) or
BARREL DISTORTION
(CURVING INWARD). It is not
improved by stopping down.
Very common in extreme wide
angles and lenses with WA
adapters.
 8. FLARES
Flare is non-image forming light.
Reduces contrast and color saturation.
Flare is caused by very bright subject
areas and produces internal reflections in
the lens. Stacking of filters can increase
flare. Lens coatings by the Mfg. keeps flare
to a minimum. The use of a suitable hood
(not the stock hood) can also aid in
reducing flare. telephoto). It does not affect
sharpness, only shape of the image. It is
not improved by stopping down. Very
common in extreme wide angles and
lenses with WA adapters.
CAMERA ACCESSORIES
 SHUTTER

• A device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure

for an accurately timed intervals then close automatically.
It’s designed to control the time during which the light
reaches the film. The action of the shutter is expressed in the
different shutter speeds which corresponds to the length of time
or duration of the opening to the closing of the shutter.
DIFFERENT SHUTTER SPEEDS
B- for bulb
or brief
1
2
4
8
15
30
60
125
250
500
1000
TWO GENERAL TYPES OF
SHUTTER
 FOCAL PLANE SHUTTER CENTRAL SHUTTER
- located near the focal plane or - located near the lens leaves
the sensitized material usually usually made of metal which
made from cloth curtain which opens from the center towards
open on one side and closes on the sides closes vis-a-vis.
the other side.
 EXPOSURE
- Exposure is the product of illumination and time or overall
brightness or darkness of a photograph. More specifically, it’s the
amount of light that reaches the film or camera sensor when a
picture is being taken. The more you expose the film or camera
sensor to light, the lighter your photo will be. The less light, the
darker your photo will be. Also it’s the action of recording radiant
energy that produces a change on a material or substances
sensitive to such energy. In conventional photography materials,
the action of exposing energy reduces or breaks down the silver
halide sufficiently to produce a latent (invisible) record of the
pattern of light intensity or in the case of printing material, a visible
record. Exposure is computed by any of the following methods.
• Use of light or exposure meter. The amount of light coming
from a source or the amount of light being reflected by the subject
is measured by the light meter. Proper adjustment therefore
becomes simplified.
• By taking into consideration exposure factors like; emulsion
speed or film sensitivity, lightning condition, kind of subject.
FILM SPEED LIGHTING CONDITION

BRIGHT SUN HAZY SUN DULL SUN

ISO 100/21 ̊ 1/125 f-11 F-8 F-5.6

ISO 200/24 ̊ 1/250 f-11 F-8 F-5.6

1/125 f-11 F-11 F-8

ISO 400/27 ̊ 1/500 f-11 F-8 F-5.6
1/250 f-16 F-11 F-5.6
1/125 f-22 F-16 F-11
GUIDE AND PRINCIPLES TO CONSIDER
IN EXPOSURE
B. Principle in Relative Aperture
• “The larger the f-number, the smaller the aperture”

C. Principle in Shutter Speed

• “The higher the number, the faster the shutter speed”

D. Principle in Film Sensitivity

• “The higher the number, the more sensitive/faster the film”
 FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
- Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or
an electric discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash) is
the most common supplemental light for still photography. A flash
unit offers a great light output, in compact lightweight, and
economical form. It avoids the effect of heat and glare during set-
up which is common with continuous light sources.
TYPES OF FLASH
1. EXPOSURE WITH FLASH
 A. SHUTTER SPEED

- shutter speed or exposure time is the length of time that the film
or digital sensor inside the camera is exposed to light when taking
a photograph. It’s the speed at which the shutter of the camera
closes.

NOTE: A fast shutter speed creates a shorter exposure — the

amount of light the camera takes in — and a slow shutter speed
gives the photographer a longer exposure
 B. LENS OPENING

- Guide numbers are used to find the f-numbers at which the

exposures should be make on the following formula:

Guide number (GN) = f- number

Distance in feet

GUIDE NUMBERS - a measure photographers can use to

calculate either the required f‑stop for any given flash-to-subject
distance, or the required distance for any given f‑stop.
2. ON CAMERA FLASH
- an external flash unit or speedlight which
can be attached via the hot shoe, which
you'll find on top of your camera.
 HOT SHOE
- a mounting point on the top of a camera to attach a flash unit and
other compatible accessories
3. OFF THE CAMERA FLASH
 A. MULTIPLE FLASH
- more than one flash unit is used. One is concerned to the camera
with a flash cord while the other is attached to a “slave” unit.

- This flash unit is capable of firing multiple times while the

camera shutter is open. Multiple flash photography allows you to
capture a series of movements of the subject in a single photo.
 B. FILL-IN FLASH
- a photographic technique used to brighten deep shadow
areas, typically outdoors on sunny days, though the technique is
useful any time the background is significantly brighter than the
subject of the photograph, particularly in backlit subjects.

- when you want to eliminate or add illumination to shadow areas

or subject so detail that otherwise will not appear clearly in the final
picture.
 C. OPEN FLASH
- the shutter speed is set “B” and once the shutter is open, the
flash is activated or fired released manually. Then the shutter is
released or is closed.
 D. BOUNCE FLASH
- instead of the light going directly to the subject, it is bounced on
light colored ceilings or walls near the subject. This will give a
softer effect on the subject, and also diminish or reduce harsh
shadow that will be casted by the subject.
 4. UMBRELLA FLASH
- a modified type of bounce flash by using an umbrella lined with
silver, white, blue or amber colored especially made for
photography. The flash is mounted on the handle of the umbrella
aimed at its inside center. This inside center is then aimed toward
the subject.
5. RING FLASH
- this is round or circular flash
unit usually placed around the
outer end of the camera lens.
This is used for taking close-ups
or macrophotography especially
in medical photography.
 PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER
• Used to modify the amount of light that reaches the film.
• These are disc of glass or negative which when placed in front of
the camera lens, stop or another color of light from passing
through in striking the film.
TYPES OF FILTERS
A. GENERAL TYPES
 1. OPTICAL FILTER
- are made either of glass or acetate. Optical filters are used
primarily to control exposing energy (visible wavelength,
ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized materials are handled.
2. PARTICLE OR SOLUTION FILTER
- is used in special photographic procedures like in infrared
luminescence.
B. OTHER TYPES OF FILTERS
 1. LIGHT BALANCING FILTER
- A filter used to change the
color quantity of the exposing
light in order to secure proper
color balance for artificial light
films.
 2. COLOR COMPENSATING FILTER
- It is used to change the over-all
color balance of photographic
result obtained with color films
and to compensate for
deficiencies in the quality of
exposing energy.
 3. NEUTRAL DENSITY FILM

- It is being used when the light

is too bright to allow the use of
desired f-number of shutter
speed with a particular film.
 4. POLARIZING FILTER
It is used to reduce or
minimize reflection on
subjects like water glass, and
highly polished surfaces.Often
placed in front of the camera
lens in photography in order to
darken skies, manage
reflections, or suppress glare
from the surface of lakes or the
sea.
 5. SPECIAL 18A DEEP PURPLE FILTER
- It is the correct filter for
ultraviolet photography. These
are often used in photography; its
short wavelength gives better
definition of the fine details.
1. What is the principle in relative
aperture?
2. It refers to the amount of light that
reaches the film
3. It refers to the amount of time that the film
inside the camera is exposed to light.
4. What is the principle in shutter speed?
5. Exposure setting that is used when seeking to
use a shutter speed of more than 30 seconds
6. It’s a photographic technique used to
brighten deep shadow areas.
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS
SENSITIZED MATERIALS
- It refers to the film and photographic paper
that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin
and coated on a transparent or reflective
support.
 SILVER HALIDES

- Is the substance present

in the emulsion surface of
the sensitized material
which actually reacts with
light.
 A. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

• Is a chemically reactive
material that record a fixed or
still image when expose to light.
• It is a cellulose tape or plate
where silver salts are suspended
capable of recording light.
• Its primary function is to record
the image that is focused upon it
by the lens of the camera.
 B. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

• A type of light sensitized

material that produces a
positive result or photographs
after development
which is final result of photography.

• A material suspended with an

emulsion.
KINDS OF FILM
 1. ORDINARY/PANCHROMATIC FILM

• It is sensitive to all colors

especially to blue and violet.

• It is suitable for general use in

the preparation of black and
white photographs.
CLASSES OF ORDINARY FILMS
A. PROCESS PANCHROMATIC FILM OR SHORT SCALE
- Low in speed and high in contrast.

B. FINE GRAIN PANCHROMATIC FILM OR LONG SCALE

- Permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.

C. HIGH SPEED PANCHROMATIC FILM

- It was designed originally intended for photographing and object or subject
under adverse lighting conditions.
2. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM

- Sensitive to U.V. light

and BLUE Color.
3. ORTOCHROMATIC/KODALITH FILM

- Sensitive to all colors

except red.
• Good for fingerprint
photography or document
(high contrast).
 4. MINICOPY FILM

- Film with limited

enlargement capability.
5. POLARIOD FILM
• Contains chemicals for
developing and fixation.
• A special type of sensitized
material that produces a
photograph immediately after
exposure.
6. COLOR FILM
- All film ending in “COLOR”.

TYPES OF COLOR FILM:

A. COLOR NEGATIVE/NEGATIVE TYPE – represented by
the “color” to which it is sensitive.

B. COLOR TRANSPARENCY/REVERSAL TYPE – for slides,

ends in the word “CHROME”.
7. COLOR INFRARED FILM/INFRARED FILM
• A special type of film which is sensitive to
infra-red radiation.
• It is also sensitive to violet and blue-green.
• In is useful in penetrating haze because of its
longer wavelength.
• In investigative photography, it is useful in
laboratory analysis of questionable
documents.
• In the discovery of old or faded tattoos or
areas where small objects are hidden under the
skin, and in the construction of camera traps.
8. X-RAY FILM

• A material which is
sensitive to x-ray region of
electromagnetic spectrum.
GENERAL TYPES OF EMULSION
1. MONOCHROMATIC FILM

• Because of its limited color

sensitivity, has no use in regular
photography
• It is used primarily for
recopying.
2. ORTOCHROMATIC FILM

• These are sensitive to ultra-violet,

violet, blue, green and yellow
portions of the spectrum.
• They do not accurately reproduce
the relative brightness of the subject
of a subject as seen by the naked
eye.
• It is available in sheet film only
and it is not used in regular
police photography.
 3. PANCHROMATIC FILM

• These are sensitive to all color

of the visual spectrum to assist in
the selection of the correct film for
any kind of work.
• These are divided based on
color sensitivity.
A. PROCESS PANCHROMATIC FILM
- Permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has
the advantage of the grain structure.

B. GRAIN PANCHROMATIC FILM

C. HIGH SPEED PANCHROMATIC FILM

- Designed originally for photographing object under adverse
lighting condition.
BLACK AND WHITE FILM
(SIX LAYERS OF BLACK AND WHITE FILM)
1. GELATIN ANTI-HALATION LAYER

- this layer prevents light from

passing back through the
emulsion layer once it has
already passed through.
2. ANTI-CURL BACKING

- this layer stabilizes the laminate to prevent it from curling.

 3. ADHESION LAYER

- this layer is used to bond

different layers together.
4. FILM BASE

- this is a transparent layer

that supports the image.
5. EMULSION
- this is the most important layer; it
contains the silver halide crystals that
react when the film is exposed to light,
causing a latent (unseen) image.

- part of film or photographic paper

sensitive to light. In a colored film
this emulsion surface can be
composed of three layers (Blue, Green
and Red) with filters intervening.
 6. GELATIN PROTECTIVE COATING

- also known as the anti-

scratch layer. They serve as
a support to the emulsion.
 EMULSION SPEED

- Degree of sensitivity of the film to light.

DIFFERENT INDICATORS OF
EMULSION SPEED
 A. ASA RATING
(American Standard Association)
- This is expressed in arithmetical value.
(ASA 10,20,30,40,50,100,200,400,800,1000)
 B.DIN RATING
(DEUTCHE INDUSTRE NORMEN)

- This is expressed in Logarithmic Value.

(DIN 12,15,18,21,24,27,30,33 etc.)
 C. ISO RATING
(INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ORGANIZATION)

- This is expressed in the combined

arithmetical and logarithmic values.
RULES GOVERNING FILM RATINGS:

1. The higher the number the faster the film.

2. The lower the number the finer the grain.

A. CLASSIFICATION OF FILMS
1. Slow films - These range from ASA 25 (or lower) to
approximately ASA 80.

2. Medium-speed films - From about ASA 100 to 250, a film falls

between slow and fast.

3. Fast films - From ASA 250 to 400 is the fast speed range.

4. Superfast films - There are only a few superfast films in the

ASA 1000 to 3200 range.
B. SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
- responsiveness of the film emulsion to the
different wavelength to the light course.
A. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM – Sensitive to ultra-violet rays
and blue light only.

B. ORTOCHROMATIC FILM - Sensitive to ultra-violet rays

up to green.

C. PANCHROMATIC FILM – sensitive to ultra-violet radiation

to blue, green or all colors.

D. INFRARED FILM – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue,

green red light and infra-red rays.
C. COLOR FILMS
- A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the
same support or base. The top
emulsion is sensitive to blue light only.
D. IMPORTANT TERMS

A. LATENT IMAGE - The invisible image left by the action of light

on photographic film or paper. When processed, the latent image
becomes a visible image, either as a negative, or as a positive
black- and-white print or color transparency.
B. CONTRAST - It is the degree of difference between the
darkest tone and the lightest tone in a negative, print, or slide.
The darkest tone may be black, and the lightest may be pure
white, depending on the subject, lighting, exposure, and
development.
C. DENSITY- In a negative or slide density relates to the amount
of developed silver (or dye) in any area, and is a measure of the
D. EMULSION - A thin layer of light-sensitive material, usually
silver halide; emulsion is coated on a transparent base for film,
and on a paper base for printing papers.

E. GRANULARITY OR GRAININESS -This refers to the size of

the metallic silver grains that are formed after the
development of an exposed film.
✓ The sizes of the metallic silver grains are dependent on the
emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that
is used in the processing.
✓ The rule is: the lower the emulsion speed rating, the finer the
grain and conversely, the higher the emulsion speeds rating of the
film, the bigger the grains.

✓ Likewise, a film developer will produce a finer grain than a paper

developer when used for film
processing.
QUIZZZZZZZZZZ
1. It’s lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but
not more than twice the diagonal of its negative material.
-NORMAL LENS
2. It’s considered as the biggest and expensive type of camera.
- VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA
3. It has a function of controlling the time during which the light
reaches the film.
- SHUTTER
4. Inherent lens defect that inability of the lens to focus light that
travels straight or lateral.
- COMA OR LATERAL ABERRATION
5. It has the function to focus the light from the subject.
- LENS
6. It’s the opening within the lens that control how much the light
hits the image sensor.
- APERTURE
7.It’s the inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and
horizontal lines on the same plane.
- ASTIGMATISM
8. It’s a lens the combination of negative and positive lens.
- ZOOM LENS
9. A filter that used in special photographic procedures like in
infrared luminescence.
- PARTICLE OR SOLUTION FILTER
10. A flash that been used when you want to eliminate or add
illumination to shadow areas or subject. - FILL-IN FLASH
11. An emulsion speed is expressed in logarithmic Value.
- DEUTCHE INDUSTRE NORMEN
12. This film is sensitive to all colors except red.
- ORTOCHROMATIC OR KODALITH FILM
13. It’s used to modify the amount of light that reaches the film.
-PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER
14. It is the degree of difference between the darkest tone and the
lightest tone in a negative, print, or slide.
- CONTRAST
15. It’s the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest
object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at a
particular distance. - DEPTH OF FIELD
16. A type of camera best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens. - SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA

17. Lens that always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides.
- POSITIVE/CONVERGENT OR CONVEX LENS
18. What is the principle in relative aperture?
-
19. This layer prevents light from passing back through the
emulsion layer once it has already passed through.
- GELATIN ANTI-HALATION LAYER
20. This layer it contains the silver halide crystals that react when
the film is exposed to light, causing a latent (unseen) image and
it’s considered as the most important layer. - EMULSION
22 21
 23

25
26

24
2

27
28
29
 30

32

31

33

34
35

37

38
36
39-40. WRITE THE COMPLETE NAME OF YOUR CRI-198
TEACHER
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
- It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image
in the final development and become the photograph. The
result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The
materials necessary to produce a photograph (POSITIVE PRINT)
are a sensitized paper. Printing paper invented by Louis Désiré
Blanquart Evrard in 1850. A photographic paper is made of a
layer of a photosensitive substrate: the photographic emulsion that
is coated on a piece of paper. Once exposed to light it needs to be
chemically developed and desensitized to light in order to render
the image and make it permanent. [83] Photos consist of at least
two components:
 1. Paper
- This can include thin sheets of plain paper, like that used to
create office documents, or thick, multi-layered papers.

2. Image-forming Materials
- These are the colorants that make up the picture. Image-forming
materials include dyes, pigments, and toners.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
 A. According to Emulsion Used
(Silver halides content)

1. CHLORIDE PAPER
- Has a slow speed and is
suited for contact
printing.
2. BROMIDE PAPER

- Has fast speed and

is recommended for
projection printing or
enlarging.
CHLOROBROMIDE PAPER

- A multi-speed and could

be used in both contact
printing and enlarging.
B. According to Physical
Characteristics
B.1 WEIGHT
1. Light weight - designed for high flexibility and when paper
thickness is not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which
involves folding.

2. Single Weight - papers used for small prints or which are need
to be mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the
production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.

3. Double weight - generally used for large prints because they

stand up under rough treatment.
B.2 SURFACE TEXTURE
1. GLOSSY PAPER
- designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.

2. SEMI-MATE PAPER
- obscure the fine details

3. ROUGH PAPER
- used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is
necessary.
B.3 COLOR
1. WHITE
- better used in police photography.

2. CREAM
- preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth
effect is desired.

3. BUFF PAPERS
- prepare for tone prints
C. ACCORDING TO CONTRAST GRADE
• Contrast Range or Grade - In black and white printing, it is
often necessary to adjust the paper contrast so they can yield a
natural scene result from negatives with density range that are
either too high or too low. Some papers are available in several
contrast ranges or grades while others have built-in contrast
control affected by the use of a filter on the enlarging lens or one
the enlarger light source. In most photographic papers, the
contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers-number 0-5.
1. NUMBER 0 TO 1
- used in over-exposed or low contrast negatives.
a. Velox No. 0 - used for printing extremely contrast negative or
extremely exposed film.
b. Velox No. 1 - used for high contrast negative (over exposed
film)

2. NUMBER 2
- used in normal exposed or normal contrast negatives.
3. NUMBERS 3 TO 5
- used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.

a. Velox No. 3 - used for negative with weak contrast (under

exposed)

b. Velox No. 4 - used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate

for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high
contrast is desired.

c. Velox No. 5 - for flat negative that are unprintable.

Exposure and Development Latitude

a. Exposure Latitude
✓ Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide range of
photographic latitude so exposure
must be critical at all times.

b. Development Latitude
✓ Papers that do not change appreciably in contrast and image
tone with reasonable variations in development has good latitude.
✓ For best quality the developing time should be as near as those
prescribed by the manufacturer.
CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
CHEMICAL PROCESSING

After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the
photographic paper during printing, the next step would generally
be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps
are development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing,
the steps are color development, stop fix and stabilizer.
STAGES OF CHEMICAL PROCESSING
1. DEVELOPMENT

- is the process by which an invisible latent image in an

emulsion is made visible. In black and white emulsion, the image
is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In a color emulsion,
the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta
dye.

- In the development, a developing agent chemically breaks down

or reduce exposed silver halide crystals to form grains of metallic
silver. This process of reaction is the same in both black and white
films and photographic papers.
IN DEVELOPMENT OF:

1. FILM D-76
- (a classic black and white film developer offering fine grain
results along with full film speed, high shadow detail, and normal
contrast)

2. PHOTO PAPER - DEKTOL

3. BOTH FILM AND PAPER - UNIVERSAL DEVELOPER

 2. STOP BATH
- it halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It
also prevents the contamination of the developer and fixer
from each other.
 3. FIXATION
- a fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is
followed by a through washing. In this processing stage, the
unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved
and removed from the emulsion of the photographic material.
 4. WASHING
- use of running water.

5. The application Wetting

Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo

6. DRYING
 DARK ROOM PHOTOGRAPHY
Darkroom - A light tight room used for developing film making
contact print and enlargement. It is a room protected from rays
of light harmful to sensitized materials, plates and papers.
TWO DISTINCT SIDES:

1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that must be kept away
from water.

2. Wet Side – Processing area, chemical, stock solutions, trays

and other materials.
 CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Developing process of film – the latent image becomes

permanent and visible in a reverse way thus producing a negative.

Developing process of photo paper – the permanent and visible

image produces positive print or photographs.
Two Factors to be considered in developing process:

1. Density – is the degree of darkness of the image developed –

too dark or to light.

2. Contrast – is the different of tone from another.

Factors that affect chemical development of the sensitized
material:
1. Concentration or strength of the working solution – used
mixture procedure by manufacturers.

2. Temperature of chem
ical involved in the development process

3. Time of development

4. Agitation of the sensitized material during development.

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPER

1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone

2. Preservative – sodium sulfite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or fog preventer – potassium bromide
CHEMICAL COMPONENT OF A FIXER

1. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or sodium thiosulphate

2. Preservative – Sodium sulphite
3. Neutralizer – boric and acetic acid
4. Hardener – Potassium alum.
 SYSTEMS ON DEVELOPING

1. Repeated use system – after each development the solution

is poured in a container for use again.
2. One shot system - after development the solution is poured
into the sink.
FAULTS AND REMEDY ON NEGATIVES:
1. Intensification – can be done to under-exposed negative. It is
the addition of minute part of another metal usually chromium or
mercury on the top of the metallic silver formed to strengthen
contrast to obtain good density.
2. Reduction – for over exposed negative. It is the reducing of
density in the negative-overexposed negatives potassium ferry
cyanide and sodium thiosulphate or Hypo or Farmer’s Reducer.
3. Increasing or Decreasing development time.
4. Use of development that increase or subdues contrast.
 FILM PROCESSING

- - It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment.

Panchromatic materials must be handled in total darkness.

Other materials like blue films, panchromatic films, and printing
papers are handled under the safelight.
 Film Processing Procedure

• 1. Tank Method of Film development

• a. Mix the developer, stop bath and fixer according to the
instructional manuals. Then bring it to the temperature which is
20-21 C or 68-70 F.
• b. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and tank
so they can be readily located in the dark.
• c. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying
off the cap opposite the end, where the long spool core
protrudes. Extend the film then remove it from the tips in the
spool core and reel it.
 REELING PROCEDURE

✓ Hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one
hand while the other hand holds the reel.
✓ Engage the film’s end at the center clip or hook of the reel
✓ Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb
and the forefinger so it narrows just enough
to fit into the reel.
✓ Turn the reel with the other hand to pull the film unto the reel.
✓ Do not apply excessive pressure with the other hand holding
and squeezing the film.
✓ Let the film pass freely, it will straighten out full width in the
spiral space of the reel.
d. After the reeling of the film is done, place it inside the daylight
developing tank then cover it. While light can now be opened.
Remove the lid cover of the tank and pour the film developer
slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank then and agitate it for a
few seconds. Timer should start. Intermittent agitation should be
made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes pour out or
drain the developer.
e. Put in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20
seconds drain out the stop bath. Next is to pour the fixing bath.
Agitation should also be done. And after 15-20 minutes drain the
fixer from the tank.
Note: Used developer, stop-bath and fixer can be used again
and again but instead of pouring them back in the bottles of
fresh or unused solutions, pour them in a separate container
so it will not contaminate the fresh or unused solution.

f. You may now wash the negative for several changes of

preference in running water for another 15-20 minutes.
g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge
and immerse it in water then squeeze it to remove the excess
water. Wipe the negative with a sponge slowly to remove the water
adhering on the negative. These must be done on both sides of
the negative. Water that adheres on the surface of the negative
can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, but free place or better in a
negative drier.
2. Tray Method of Film Development
✓ The developer is placed on a tray.
✓ In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold
the end of the film and immerse the film in the developer in the tray
making, make sure that the film is thoroughly dipped until the
whole length of the film is evenly wet.
✓ Timer will start.
✓ With a see-saw of pulling up or down motion, move the film from
the one end to the other then back, continuously until the
developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
✓ Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds with the
same motion.
✓ Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute the same
motion for about 5 minutes then you can now open the white light.
✓ Continue the fixing until the required time is finished.
✓ Next will be the washing and drying of the negative.
● This developing procedure is actually not recommended
because the film has long contact with air during the procedure
which can cause aerial fog. Besides it is more tedious and tiring
especially with a 36-exposure film.
 Q. The process of removing unexposed silver
halide remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of the development of the latest image.

a. Developing c. Fixation
b. Stop bath d. Enlarging
 Q. The process of removing unexposed silver
halide remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of the development of the latest image.

a. Developing c. Fixation
b. Stop bath d. Enlarging
 Q. This method of chemical processing has the function of
preventing the contamination of two chemical solutions.

a. Fixation c. Enlarging
b. Developing d. Stop bath
 Q. This method of chemical processing has the function of
preventing the contamination of two chemical solutions.

a. Fixation c. Enlarging
b. Developing d. Stop bath
Q. The usual developing time using a tray is about—

a. 4-5 min c. 20-30 sec

b. 5-6 min d. 20-30 min
Q. The usual developing time using a tray is about—

a. 4-5 min c. 20-30 sec

b. 5-6 min d. 20-30 min
 4. The following are factors that affect the developing
time EXCEPT.

a. characteristics of negative material

b. characteristic of the positive material
c. agitation and stirring during the development
d. temperature of the developing solution
 4. The following are factors that affect the developing
time EXCEPT.

a. characteristics of negative material

b. characteristic of the positive material
c. agitation and stirring during the development
d. temperature of the developing solution
 Q. The main purpose of using stop bath is for

a. Separating the chemicals (developer and fixer).

b. Prevent the contamination of two chemicals.
c. Halting the developer while it is in the process of
developing.
d. All of these.
 Q. The main purpose of using stop bath is for

a. Separating the chemicals (developer and fixer).

b. Prevent the contamination of two chemicals.
c. Halting the developer while it is in the process of
developing.
d. All of these.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
1. Printmaking Process:
2. Printmaking – the final stage in making photographs.

3. Enlarger – It is a machine used in making enlargement. It is a

specialized transparency used to produce prints from film or glass,
or from film or glass negatives, or from transparencies.

4. Contact Printing – photograph is made through direct negative

and paper contact.
Factors to consider in selecting negative:

1. Sharpness

2. Density

3. Contrast
General Types of Photographic Printing
1. Contact Printing
• The procedure of exposing photographic print materials
while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
reproduced.
• When the photograph is made through direct negative and paper
contact, this process is known as contact printing.
• This is the simplest and the most economical method of
photographic printing.
• In terms of print quality, it can surpass enlargement in tonality
because there is no scattering of image forming lights as these
can be projected beams of an enlarger.

• It usually looks sharper because there is no lens on the printing

system to add its aberrations in the print process and also
because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged
so the sharpness is not apparent.
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

• This is the type of printing where the image in a negative is

optically or enlarged onto a print material for exposure to produce
a picture image. The main equipment used is the enlarger.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES IN PRINTING

1. Dodging - is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of

the negative during enlarging.

2. Cropping - is the process of omitting an object during the

process of enlarging and printing.

3. Burning-In - refers to additional exposure on a desired portion

of the negative used for purposes of making a balance exposure.
ENLARGER PARTS AND FUNCTION
 1. ENLARGER HEAD

– the main working part of

enlarger contains: Light,
condenser, lens, negative
holder, the lens itself.
 2. LAMP

– light that passes through the

negative that exposed photo
paper.
 3. CONDENSER LENS

- lens that spread the light

coming from the lamp of the
enlarger.
 4. NEGATIVE CARRIER

– hold the negative flat

and level.
 5. LENS APERTURE
– the opening of the lens that controls rays
of light passing through it.

6. LENS
– it is the one responsible in forming the
image coming from the negative.
 7. FOCUSING MECHANISM

– it moves the lens up and

down to focus the projected
image.
 8. ENLARGER COLUMN

– it is the holder of the

enlarger head and commonly
serves as a rail in controlling the
height of enlarger head.
 9. ELEVATING CONTROL KNOB

– control size of image

by raising or lowering the
enlarger head.
 10. BASE BOARD

– the support of the entire

unit of the enlarger.