Forensic Photography:

Chapters IV - VI
-Nestlie Maruquin, Rcrim
IV. CAMERA: NOMENCLATURE & V. PHTOGRAPHIC LENS VI. PHTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
TYPES a) Lens defined a) Types of photographic papers
a) Camera Principles b) Classification of Lenses b) Advantages of projection
b) Essential parts of a camera c) Inherent lens defects printing
c) Camera Accessories d) Filters
d) Types of Camera

Forensic Photography
 Camera Principles
A camera functions as a light-tight
box that prevents unwanted light from
entering, allowing only the controlled
amount through the lens to expose the
film or sensor. This design is essential
for capturing clear images, as it
ensures that light interacts only with
the intended medium during exposure.
Camera Principles
 Camera Principles
1.Light Capture: All cameras are designed to capture
light, which is essential for creating images. Light enters
through a lens and is focused onto a recording medium.

2. Optics: The lens focuses incoming light onto the

recording medium (film or digital sensor). The
characteristics of the lens, such as focal length and
aperture, significantly influence image quality.
 Camera Principles
3. Exposure Control:
Aperture: This is the
adjustable opening in the lens that
controls how much light reaches
the recording medium. It also
affects depth of field, determining
how much of the image is in focus.
Shutter Speed: This refers to
the duration for which the shutter
remains open, controlling how
long the recording medium is
exposed to light.
 Camera Principles
Controls how sensitive your camera to light
The higher the ISO no., the more sensitive the light

Controls how long the

light enters the camera Controls how much light
(Exposure time) enters the camera
The higher the Shutter (Amount of light)
Speed No., The faster The smaller the opening,
the light is allowed to the higher the F no., the
pass through, but the sharper the image
lesser the light
 F-stops/ F-Numbers

F 1.4
“THE LOWER THE F-NUMBER, THE
BIGGER THE LENS OPENING AND
THE BIGGER THE LENS OPENING
THE GREATER THE VOLUME OF
AIR THAT WILL PASSED THROUGH
THE LENS AND REACH THE
SENSITIZED MATERIAL”.

F 16
 Shutter Speed
• It regulates the time exposure of the film thus,
affecting the amount of light reaching the
sensitized material.
• It is expressed in a fraction of a second.
• “THE HIGHER THE FRACTION, THE FASTER THE TIME
IS ALLOWED TO PASS THROUGH”
• “THE FASTER THE SPEED, ALLOWS LESS LIGHT”
 Standard Combination
Bright Sunlight = 1/125 , f-11
Hazy Sunlight = 1/125, f-8
Dull Sunlight = 1/125, f-5.6
N0TE: The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of
light gathering than that of the right number • Slow shutter speeds are basically
used for low light while fast shutter speeds are used in bright lighting conditions.
 Camera Principles
4. Recording Medium: In analog cameras, this is
photographic film coated with light-sensitive chemicals. In
digital cameras, it consists of sensors (typically CCD or
CMOS) that convert light into electrical signals.

5. Image Processing: In digital cameras, captured images

are processed and stored as digital files on memory cards.
In analog cameras, exposed film undergoes chemical
development to reveal photographs
 Purpose of Camera
1. Image Capture: The primary aim is to record images of
subjects, whether they are people, landscapes, or objects.
2. Creative Expression: Cameras enable photographers to
express their artistic vision through various techniques and
settings.
3. Documentation: They serve as tools for documenting events
and experiences, making them valuable in journalism and
personal storytelling.
4. Communication: Cameras facilitate visual communication
by conveying messages and emotions through photographs.
 Functions of a Camera
1.Light Entry: Allows light to enter through the lens to create
images.
2.Focusing Light: The lens focuses incoming light onto the
recording medium.
3.Controlling Exposure: Adjusting aperture regulates light entry.
4.Shutter speed controls exposure duration.
5.Recording Images: Captures the focused image on the
recording medium.
6.Processing Images: Converts captured images into viewable
formats in digital cameras or develops film in analog cameras.
 Analogue vs. Digital Camera
ANALOGUE DIGITAL
Speed of response There is delay Shutter delay differs from camera to
camera
Predictability Image is not immediately visible With instantaneous preview
Cost of purchase Less expensive Expensive
Viewing With viewfinder LCD Display
Cost of operation Processing and associated darkroom expenditures Few cost involved
Sound With sound Mostly silent
Battery life Some does not need a battery at all Power hungry
Long exposures It can handle exposures up to hours without any Sensor has problems handling long
problems exposures
Storages Can potentially last hundreds of years Life is doubtful
 Essential Parts of Camera
Infographics

Camera Lens Shutter Film holder Viewfinder

a box designed to to collect or to focus to control the time to hold firmly the to determine the
keep light out and the reflected light from during which the light sensitized material field of view of the
serve as a frame to an object to form an reaches the film camera
hold other parts. image on the film.
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
• FILM ADVANCER (FILM ADVANCE LEVER OR
KNOB) Designed to transfer the exposed film to
the other side or to the take up spool and the
unexposed film will be the opposite side of the
lens for another exposure

• DIAPHRAGM - a device made of thin

overlapping metal leaves within a lens or
camera which can be adjusted to specific
apertures of f-stops to control the amount of light
that strikes the film

• Depth of Field – It is the remoteness or distance

measured from the nearest to the farthest object
in apparent sharp focus when the lens set of
focus is at a particular distance.
The smaller the lens opening, the wider/broader the DOF; The bigger the lens opening, the shallower/narrower the DOF
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
• DEPTH OF FOCUS – It is the distance toward and
away from the film that the lens can be moved at a
given f-value and the object still appears in focus

• HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE – The nearest distance at

which a lens is focused with a given diaphragm
opening, which will give the maximum depth of
field.

• FOCUSING RING – Moves the lens back and forth

which allows the photographer to create a sharp
image of the subject
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
• SHUTTER SPEED DIAL – It Will Control The
Length Of Time When Light Is Allowed To
Strike The Sensitized Material

• SHUTTER – An Adjustable Mechanism That

Regulates The Among Of Light Reaching
The Film By Varying The Length Of Time Is
Allowed To Pass Through

• SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON – A Part Of The

Camera Which When Pressed Will Keep
The Shutter In Open Position
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
• ACCESSORY LIGHT SHOE/FLASH HOT • DISTANCE SCALE – A device that shows the
SHOE – it is where the flash bulb is approximate distance from the optical center of
inserted for indoor photography the lens to the point of focus on the object

• FILM REWIND LOCK – a device that • ISO/ASA/DIN DIAL – a camera device in which
secures the film for any accidental when adjusted it will conform with the sensitivity of
rewinding the film to light
 Accessories of Camera
1) TRIPOD = it is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension .Used in
holding big camera or when using a slow shutter (Lower than1/125).
2) CABLE RELEASE = This is attached to the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the
camera during the exposure period especially when longer exposure is required.
3) LIGHT METER = a device use in determining the intensity of light that strokes the subjects &
affects the film.
 Accessories of Camera
4.. FLASH UNIT - an artificial light source synchronized with the opening and closing of the
shutter to emit a brief but very bright burst of illumination to a scene.
5. EXTENSION TUBE - a tube inserted between the lens and camera body to provide increased
magnification
6. FILTER - used to enhance color or contrast, remove reflections, reduce haze, or produce a
variety of special effects
 TYPES OF CAMERA

VIEWFINDER CAMERA CAMERA OBSCURA BOX CAMERA

Viewfinder is separate from the lens. A device in a shape of a box or a The instrument of choice for the
Considered as the smallest and simplest room that lets the light through a casual amateur photographer.
type. Primarily used for composing and small opening on one side and Inexpensive and simple, capable of
framing images, allowing photographers projects it on the other. The excellent results under many
to accurately see and focus on their smaller the hole, the sharper conditions. Lacks a focusing system
subject before capturing the shot. the image, but the more exposure as well as control of aperture and
will be required cameras with photographic flash were
introduced, allowing indoor photos.
 TYPES OF CAMERA

SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA

DIGITAL SINGLE LENS TWIN LENS REFLEX CAMERA
One lens only for both viewing and picture- REFLEX CAMERA Dual lens, one for focusing and the
taking, preventing parallax. It uses a A type of camera that is electronic other for forming the image allowing
mirror and prism system to allow the and does not require light sensitive photographers to compose
photographer to see exactly what the materials for recording images, images through a top-down
lens sees through an optical viewfinder, offering advanced features such as
viewfinder while the camera
providing accurate framing and interchangeable lenses, manual
controls, and high-quality image
captures the scene through the
focusing before taking a photograph. lower lens.
processing
 PARALLAX ERROR – A phenomenon of the
camera seeing something different from the lens
and the viewfinder.
 TYPES OF CAMERA

PRESS CAMERA VIEW CAMERA

A type of camera designed for rapid Is considered the biggest and POLAROID CAMERA
photography, often used by expensive type of camera, used for A type of camera with self-developing
photojournalists. It features a compact movie making.. They have film. The most famous are those
and portable design, enabling quick setup removable lenses which can be made by the Polaroid Corporation
and shooting. Press cameras typically focused by moving either the fron
have fixed lenses tor the rear of the camera and are
equipped with bellows
 TYPES OF CAMERA

STILL VIDEO CAMERA PANORAMIC CAMERA COMPACT CAMERA

Images can be stored on videotapes It is used to capture wide-angle images, (Point-and-shoot) A type camera with
equipment with a floppy disc. Primarily allowing photographers to create added focus abilities that make it an
used for applications like surveillance, expansive views of landscapes, cityscapes, ideal camera for vacation and travel
documentation, and creative photography or large groups, often encompassing a snapshots. Have appropriate
where both stills and motion are needed. field of vision greater than what a dimensions for putting them into the
standard lens can achieve. pocket of a jacket
 PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS
An essential part of the camera
which is used to focus the light
coming from the subject, it is
mainly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed
through which light passes
during exposure.

A medium or system which

converge or diverge light rays
passing through it to form an
image.
 TYPE OF LENS ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF IMAGE TO BE PRODUCED:

❑ Convex/Positive/Converging Lens -
Characterized by the fact that it is thicker
at the center and thinner at the side
which is capable of bending the light
together and forms the image inversely.
❑ Concave/Negative/Diverging Lens -
Characterized by the fact that it is thinner
at the center and thicker at the side and
forms the virtual image on the same side
of the lens.
 INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
ABERRATION – an optical imperfection
responsible for image distortion.

❑ SPHERICAL ABERRATION Inability of

the lens to focus light passing the
side of the lens producing an image
that is sharp in the center and
blurred at the side

❑ CHROMATIC ABERRATION Inability of

the lens to bring photographic rays
of different wave lengths to the same
focus.
 FLARES
Condition of the lens
producing multiple images.
Flare is non-image forming
light. Reduces contrast and
color saturation.
Flare is caused by very bright
subject areas and produces
internal reflections in the lens.
 INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
❑ ASTIGMATISM Is a form of lens
defects in which the
horizontal and vertical axis
are not equally magnified
❑ COMA Inability of the lens to
focus light that travels straight
or lateral, thus making it
blurred while the light
reaching the lens oblique is
the one the is transmitted
sharp
❑ CURVATURE OF FIELD The
relation of the images of the
different point are incorrect
with respect to one another.
 INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

❑ DISTORTION Is a defect in shape not in sharpness.

It can either be. Pincushion or Barrel Distortion

PINCUSHION – there is straight lines near the edges of the

frame bow toward the center of frame. The curving is
inward

BARREL – straight lines near the edges of the frame bow

outward from the center. The curving is outward
 CLASSIFICATION OF LENS
ACCORDING TO DEGREE OF CORRECTIONS
✓ MENISCUS LENS = Lens that has no correction.
✓ RAPID RECTILINEAR LENS = Lens corrected of distortion.
✓ ANASTIGMAT/ANASTIGMATIC LENS = Correcting astigmatism
✓ ACHROMATIC/ACHROMAT LENS = Correcting chromatic aberration
✓ APOCHROMATIC/APOCHROMAT LENS = Correcting both astigmatism and
chromatic aberration
✓ PROCESS LENS = A super-corrected lens for astigmatism.
✓ FIXED FOCUS LENS = A lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short
focal length and greater depth of field.
FOCAL LENGTH
The distance between the lens
and the film plane when the
lens is focused on infinity.
Focal length controls
magnification (the size of the
image formed by the lens). A lens
is also described in terms of its
view angle, the mount of the
image shown on the film.
Focal lengths are usually specified
in millimeters (mm), but older
lenses marked in centimeter (cm)
and inches are still to be found.
The smaller the no., the shorter the F.L, the wider the magnification The bigger the no., the longer the F.L, the lesser/decreases the magnification
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES ACCORDING TO ITS FOCAL LENGTH
1. FISHEYE LENS - an extreme wide-
angle lens that has an angle of
view exceeding 100° and that
renders a scene as highly distorted

2. WIDE ANGLE -. Useful in taking

photograph at short distance with
wider area coverage.

3. NORMAL LENS - coverage

corresponds to human eye
 CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES ACCORDING TO ITS FOCAL LENGTH
4. TELEPHOTO LENS -. Best used in long
distance photographing but with narrow
area coverage.

5. ZOOM LENS - one in which focal length is

variable. Elements inside a variable focus
lens shift their positions, enabling the lens
to change its focal length - in effect,
providing one lens that has many focal
lengths.

6. MACRO LENS - has the ability to focus

from infinity to extremely closely, allowing it
to capture images of tiny objects in frame-
filling, larger-than-life sizes.
 FILTERS
Homogeneous medium (plastic or glass)
which absorbs and transmits different light
rays passing through it. Its basic purpose is to
subtract (control) light rays of varying
wavelengths.
TYPES OF FILTERS
CORRECTION FILTERS – used to change the
response of the film so that all colors are
recorded at approximately the relative
brightness values by the eye.

CONTRAST FILTERS – used to change the

relative brightness so that two colors which
would otherwise be recorded as nearly the
same will have decidedly different
brightness in the picture.
 FILTERS
HAZE FILTER – used to eliminate
or reduce the effect of serial
haze.

NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – used

for recording the amount of
light transmitted without
changing the color value.

POLARIZING FILTER – used to

reduce or eliminate too much
reflections on highly
reflective surfaces such as
newly painted object which
has high glossiness.
SENSITIZED MATERIAL
Photographic Paper
Sensitive Material
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

It is that sensitized material that will

record the visible image in the final
development and become the
photograph.
 TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
ACCORDING TO EMULSION USED (SILVER HALIDES CONTENT)

SILVER CHLORIDE PAPER

Used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of
the
negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when
properly developed.

SILVER BROMIDE PAPER

Used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal
photo
paper used for police photography. Will give a black tone when properly
developed.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
ACCORDING TO EMULSION USED (SILVER HALIDES CONTENT)

SILVER CHLOROBROMIDE PAPER

Used both for projection and contact printing. Slow
emulsion

VARIABLE CONTRACT PAPER

Combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special
chlorobromide emulsion
that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to
different colors of light.
ADVANTAGES OF PROJECTION PRINTING
The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing is that
large prints can be made, but there are several other
important advantages.

THE ADVANTAGES OF PROJECTION PRINTING ARE AS

FOLLOWS:
DODGING = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of
the negative during enlarging.

CROPPING = is the process of omitting an object during the

process of enlarging and printing.
VIGNETTING = is the gradual fading of
the image towards the side through
skillful adjustment on the dodging
board.

DYE TONING = is the process designed

in changing the color tone of the
photograph.

BURNING-IN = refers to additional

exposure on a desired portion of the
negative used for purposes of making a
balance exposure.
 SENSITIZED MATERIAL
It refers to the film and photographic paper
that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and
coated on a transparent or reflective
support
 STRUCTURE OF WHITE AND BLACK FILM
-TOP COATING (TOP LAYER) – scratch resistant coating also called
gelatin coating, an
over coating composed of a thin transparent layer of a hard
gelatin which help protect the
silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The hard
gelatin, which is derived
from cows, contains SULFUR. The SULFUR is very much compatible
with silver halides.
-EMULSION LAYER – SILVER SALT + GELATIN – A layer composed of
silver compounds
which are light sensitive and halogens (such as bromide, chloride
and iodide bromide in
fast film emulsion).
A silver compound when combined with a halogen becomes SILVER HALIDE. Silver
Halides are rare compound that are responsible in forming the so called the
LATENT IMAGE in the photographic film.

-FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose or other material such as

paper, plastic, or glass,
which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non-
curling antihalation backing.
-ANTIHALATION BACKING – a black dye applied on the rare surface of
the film. Its function
is to absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion thus making
the image sharper
since it suppresses double image. It prevents halo formation in
the photograph. The black
dye is removed during processing by one of the chemicals in
the developer. Its second
function is to control the film from curling inwards. (Towards the
emulsion surface).
 TYPES OF FILM
ACCORDING TO USE

BLACK AND WHITE FILM

Usually represented by a prefix or a suffix
“Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and
white photography.
EXAMPLE : Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.

COLORED FILM
Can be divided into two:
Negative type - having names ending in color
reversal type - having names ending in chrome
X – RAY FILM – films that are sensitive to X- radiations
 ACCORDING TO LIGHT SENSITIVITY

FAST FILM – contains numerous number of large grains of silver

halides that usually develop in groups; film that are very sensitive
to light.

SLOW FILM – film that require longer period to completely

expose their emulsion to light; film with fine grains of silver
halides.
 ACCORDING TO SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the
different wavelength of the light course.

BLUE – SENSITIVE FILM

Sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.

ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM
Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM)

PANCHROMATIC FILM
Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors of the visible light)

INFRA-RED FILM
Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.
 FILM SPEED (EMULSION SPEED)
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
ASA (AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION)
This is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more
sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
Note: A film with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed
of 100

DIN ( DEUTCHE INDUSTRE NORMEN)

Expressed in Logarithmic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive
the film is.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
Note: In this system, an increase of 3 degree doubles the sensitivity of the film
 ISO (INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ORGANIZATION)
Expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.

1. ISO – 25 – slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for best
color and sharpness.
2. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200 – for general purpose
3. ISO – 100 – slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter
speed; has fine grains of silver halides; produce sharp image.
4. ISO – 200 – twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large grains;
produce large sharp image.
5. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
6. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions or for fast
moving objects
ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. LIGHT WEIGHT = designed for high flexibility and when paper
thickness is not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which
involves folding.

2. SINGLE WEIGHT = papers used for small prints or which are

need to be mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the
production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.

3. DOUBLE WEIGHT = generally used for large prints because they

stand up under rough treatment
 SURFACE TEXTURE
1. GLOSSY PAPER =designed for fine details and brilliant
image formation.
2. SEMI-MATE PAPER = obscure the fine details
3. ROUGH PAPERS = used for large prints or where breath
rather than detail is necessary.

COLOR
1. WHITE = better used in police photography.
2. CREAM = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits
landscape or when warmth effect is desired.
3. BUFF PAPERS = prepare for tone prints
ACCORDING TO CONTRAST (GRADE)
1. VELOX NO. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast
negative or extremely exposed
film.
2. VELOX NO. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over
exposed film)
3. VELOX NO. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. VELOX NO. 3 = used for negative with weak
contrast (under exposed)
5. VELOX NO. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to
compensate for very thin or
weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high
contrast is desired.
6. VELOX NO. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.