THERMODYNAMICS

Ibitoye Ayo
INTRODUCTION
 In mechanics we deal with quantities such as
mass, position, velocity, acceleration,
energy, momentum, etc.
 Question: What happens to the energy of a

ball when we drop it on the floor?

 Answer: It goes into heat energy.

 Question: What is heat energy?

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
 Everyone has a qualitative understanding of
temperature, but it is not very exact.
 Question: Why can you put your hand in a 204 C
oven and not get instantly burned, but if you
touch the metal rack, you do?
 Answer: Even though the air and the rack are at
the same temperature, they have very different
energy contents.
 HEAT

 Heat Is a form of energy given to a

body to raise its temperature.
 It involves random motion of matter

 The temperature of a body is its

degree of hotness or coldness.

 The higher the temperature, the

faster the particles (atoms/molecules)

are moving, i.e. more Kinetic Energy

 Thermometers are used for accurate

measurement of temperature.
TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
 Clinical thermometers.
 Platinum resistance thermometers.

 Constant volume gas thermometers.

 Constant pressure gas thermometers.

 Optical pyrometers.
SCALES OF TEMPERATURE

 A scale and unit of temperature are obtained

by choosing two temperatures called the
fixed points.
 We have two types of points namely the ice
point and the steam point.
 Ice point(lower fixed point) is the
temperature of ice and water in thermal
equilibrium under one atmospheric pressure.
it’s value is 00C.
STEAM POINT
 Steam point is the temperature of water
and its vapour in thermal equilibrium at a
pressure of one standard atmosphere. Its
value is 1000C.
 The difference in temperature between the
upper fixed point and the lower fixed point
is called the fundamental interval.
 The temperature scale which takes -2730C
as zero degree is called absolute scale of
temperature or thermodynamic scale of
temperature. It is also called the Kelvin
scale of temperature
CONVERSION BETWEEN
FAHRENHEIT AND CELSIUS

If we know Celsius and want Fahrenheit

9
F  C  32
5
If we know Fahrenheit and want Celsius
5
C  F  32 
9
ABSOLUTE OR KELVIN SCALE
 The lowest possible temperature on the Celsius
Scale is -273C.
 The Kelvin Scale just takes this value and calls it
0K, or absolute zero.
 Note: the “size” of 1K is the same as 1C.
 To convert from C to K just add 273.
K=C+273
K is an SI unit of temperature
WHEN DO YOU USE WHICH SCALE.

 Never use Fahrenheit, except for the weather.

 You can always use Kelvin absolute

temperature measurements.

 You can use either Kelvin or Celsius when

measuring differences in temperature.

CHOICE OF LIQUID FOR
THERMOMETERS
To be suitable for use in a thermometer, a liquid should have the
following properties:
 Good conductors of electricity.
 Opaque.
 Regular expansion.
 It should not wet glass.
 Low melting point and high boiling point.
 High coefficient of expansion.
 Low density and specific heat capacity.
 Examples: Alcohol and Mercury
SPECIFIC HEAT
It is easy to change the temperature of some things
(e.g. air) and hard to change the temperature of
others (e.g. water)
The amount of heat (Q) added into a body of mass m
to change its temperature an amount T is given by

Q=m C T

C is called the specific heat and depends on

the material and the units used.
Unit of heat = Joules (J)
Material J/kgC cal/gC

Water 4186 1
Ice 2090 0.50
Steam 2010 0.48
Silver 234 0.056
Aluminum 900 0.215
Copper 387 0.0924
Gold 129 0.0308
Iron 448 0.107
Lead 128 0.0305
Brass 380 0.092
Glass 837 0.200
Wood 1700 0.41
Ethyl Alcohol 2400 0.58
Beryllium 1830 0.436
EXAMPLE

Water has a specific heat of 4186 J/Kg and iron has a specific heat
of 448 J/Kg If we add the same amount of heat to equal masses of
iron and water, which will have the larger change in temperature?

1. The iron.
2. They will have equal changes since
the same amount of heat is added to
each.
3. The Water.
4. None of the above.
Calculation
CALCULATION
 Compare the amount of heat energy required
to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water and
1 kg of iron 1ron by 20 oC

 For water
 Q = mc△T

 Q = 1 . 4186. 20 = 83720 J

 For iron

 Q = 1. 448. 20 = 8960 J
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
 Thermodynamic properties are divided into
two types- intensive and extensive properties

 An intensive property is the one that does

not depend on the mass of the system.
Examples are: temperature, pressure, density
and velocity

 An extensive property is the one that depend

on the mass of the system. Examples are:
mass, volume and kinetic energy
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
 A system interacts with its surrounding by transferring energy
across its boundary.
 An isolated system does not exchange energy with its surrounding.
 Thermodynamic involves the storage, transformation and transfer
of energy. Energy is stored as internal energy due to temperature.
 Energy is stored as kinetic energy due to its motion
 Energy is stored as potential energy due to elevation and chemical
energy due to chemical composition.
 Energy is transferred across a boundary as either heat or work.
 PROCESSES IN THERMODYNAMIC
 Isothermal process → the process takes place at constant temperature
(e.g. freezing of water to ice at –10 oC)
 Isobaric → constant pressure
(e.g. heating of water in open air→ under atmospheric pressure)
 Isochoric → constant volume
(e.g. heating of gas in a sealed metal container)
 Reversible process → the system is close to equilibrium at all times
(and infinitesimal alteration of the conditions can restore the universe
to the original state.
 Cyclic process → the final and initial state are the same.
 Adiabatic process → dq is zero during the process (no heat is
added/removed to/from the system)
 THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS-
THE FIRST LAW
 The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
 A closed system may exchange energy as heat or work.
 There exists a state function U such that for any process in a closed system:
U = q + w [1]
 q → heat flow in to the system
 w → work done on the system
q & w are not state functions → i.e. they depend on the path of a process.
 U is the internal energy. Being a state function for a process U depends only of the
final and initial state of the system.
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 It is impossible to build a cyclic machine that converts heat into work

with 100% efficiency  Kelvin’s statement of the second law.
 Another way of viewing the same:
it is impossible to construct a cyclic machine that completely (with
100% efficiency) converts heat, which is energy of random molecular
motion, to mechanical work, which is ordered motion.
 Heat does not flow from a colder body to a hotter body, without a
concomitant change outside of the two bodies Clausius’s statement
of the second law.
 This automatically implies that the spontaneous direction of the flow
of heat is from a hotter body to a colder body.

.
 THIRD LAW
 For substances in internal equilibrium, undergoing an isothermal

process, the entropy change goes to zero as T (in K) goes to zero.

 The law is valid for pure substances and mixtures.

 Close to Zero Kelvin, the molecular motions have to be treated

using quantum mechanics → still it is found that quantum ideal

gases obey the third law.

HEAT ENGINES
 Ifwe can create an “engine”
that operates in a cycle, we
return to our starting point
each time and therefore have
the same internal energy.
Thus, for a complete cycle
 Q=W
MODEL HEAT ENGINE

 Qhot= W+Qcold
or
 Qhot-Qcold=W

(what goes in must come out)

EFFICIENCY OF HEAT ENGINE
 The efficiency of a heat engine is the amount of work output divided by
the amount of heat input.
 This efficiency depends only on the ratio of the temperature of the sink to
the temperature of the source.

 This is surprising as:

 there is no mention of the medium of the system (or its properties),
 the formula has only temperatures and
 the temperature of the sink seems to play a major role (as the presence of
the sink is usually not intentional or obvious→ in a steam engine sink is
the air around the engine and source is the hot steam).
 Sink is as important as the source.
 To increase the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine, either the
temperature of the source has to be increased or the temperature of the
sink has to be decreased.
EFFECTS OF HEAT ENERGY
 Change in temperature.
 Change in state/phase.
 Expansion/contraction.
 Thermionic emission.
 Change in physical properties.
 Change in pressure of a gas.
HEAT ENERGY TRANSFER
 Heat energy can move from one location to
another in three ways:

 conduction,
 convection
 radiation.
MODE OF HEAT ENERGY TRANSFER -
CONDUCTION
 Conduction is the flow of heat through
matter from places of higher temperature to
places of lower temperature without
movement of the matter as a whole.

 Most metals are good conductors of

heat; materials such as wood, glass, cork,
plastics and fabrics are bad conductors.
HEAT ENERGY TRANSFER –
CONVECTION
Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from
places of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature by movement of the fluid itself
 Land Breeze:

At night, land cools faster than the sea.

 Warm air from above the sea rises upward.

 Its place is taken by cooler air from above the

land.
 Sea Breeze:
 During the day, the land is hotter than the sea.
 Warm air above the land rises.
 Its place is taken by the cooler air from the sea.
MODE OF HEAT TRANSFER-
RADIATION
 Radiation is the flow of heat from one place
to another by means of electromagnetic
waves.
 Dull black surfaces are better absorbers of
radiation than white solid surfaces.
 Dull black surface is a better emitter of
radiation than the shiny one.
 The black colour of radiator in buildings
enables as much heat as possible to be
radiated or emitted.
 Petrol storage tanks are sprayed with silver
paints to reflect rays (heat) falling on it.
Thank you for
your attention