Operating Systems: CSE 3204

Chapter Two
Process Management

Lecture 4: Process Scheduling

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Operating Systems ASTU

Department of CSE
 Basic Concepts
• In a single process/single processor system, only one process can
run at a time
• If there are multiple processes in the system, some processes
must wait until the CPU is free and can be allocated to them.
• At an instance of time, multiple processes may be willing to
occupy the CPU (just after the currently running process yields
the control of CPU).
• Now, which process is going to get the CPU next to the current
process finish its turn is very important question form the point of
view of not only keeping system functioning, but we will see that
the decision regarding selection of next process can be made in
many ways and can affect performance of the system.

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Operating Systems
 Process scheduling

• The particular way in which a process is selected

from a queue of processes in order to assign the
CPU is called a CPU scheduling algorithm.
• While a CPU scheduling algorithm assigns the
processor(s) to process(es), the general problem
of process scheduling is little bit broader, in
which we study about keeping processes in
different queues, in memory, in swap area or at
CPU, keeping eye on system performance.

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Operating Systems
 CPU Scheduling
• Almost all resources are scheduled before use
• CPU is one of the primary resource of a computer
• CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed
operating systems
• By switching the CPU among processes, the operating
systems can be made more productive
 Scheduling refers to the way processes are assigned to
run on the available CPUs. since there are typically
many more processes running than there are
available CPUs.
 This assignment is carried out by software known as a scheduler
and dispatcher.

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Operating Systems
 CPU - I/O burst
Each process is assigned a fixed number of
time slices to perform its execution at the
processor or to complete its I/O operation.
There are two types of “Bursts” on the
timeline:
CPU burst
• CPU burst is the time allocated to a process
or required by a process to execute on CPU.
I/O Burst
I/O burst is the time allocated or required by a
process to perform its I/O operation.
CPU - I/O burst cycle: If we carefully see the
timeline of execution of all processes in the
system, most processes will be alternating
between CPU and I/O operations. i.e. on
timeline we can observe CPU burst followed by
CPU-I/O burst
I/O burst. In this alternating burst sequence,
CPU intensive process have larger CPU burst
while I/O intensive processes have larger I/O
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requirement.
burst Systems
Operating
 CPU Scheduling
• Whenever the CPU finishes executing a process, the operating system
must select another process in the ready queue (A process must be in
ready/waiting queue and not in any other state as per state
transition diagram to be scheduled next on the CPU)
• This selection of next process from ready queue is done by the
scheduler
• The selection process is carried out by the short-term scheduler (CPU
scheduler)
 The scheduler selects a process from the list of processes in
memory ready for execution and allocates the CPU
 Although CPU bursts differ from computer to computer & from
process to process, they tend to have a frequency curve shown in
the diagram below, with a large number of short CPU bursts and a
small number of long CPU bursts.
CPU burst
durations

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Operating Systems
 Types of CPU Schedulers

There are three types of process schedulers

based on the source and destination location
of the process being scheduled

• Short term Scheduler(CPU scheduler)

• Medium term Scheduler
• Long term Scheduler

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Operating Systems
 Short term scheduler(CPU
scheduler)
• A short term scheduler, also called CPU
scheduler is responsible for selecting the jobs
from ready queue and dispatch the selected job
for execution at CPU.
• This scheduler is invoked frequently and should
be implemented in a very efficient manner with
minimum scheduling overhead.
• How much time will be allowed to a process on
CPU is dependent on the CPU scheduling
algorithm used.

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Operating Systems
 Types of CPU schedulers

There are two types of CPU schedulers:

a)Preemptive Scheduler:
Preemptive scheduling is used when a process
switches from running state to ready state or
from waiting state to ready state. The
resources (mainly CPU cycles) are allocated to the
process for the limited amount of time and then is
taken away, and the process is again placed back
in the ready queue if that process still has CPU
burst time remaining. That process stays in ready
queue till it gets next chance to execute.
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Operating Systems
 b)Non-preemptive Scheduler: Non-preemptive
Scheduling is used when a process terminates, or
a process switches from running to waiting state.
In this scheduling, once the resources (CPU
cycles) is allocated to a process, the process holds
the CPU till it gets terminated or it reaches a
waiting state. In case of non-preemptive
scheduling does not interrupt a process running
CPU in middle of the execution. Instead, it waits
till the process complete its CPU burst time and
then it can allocate the CPU to another process. .

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Operating Systems
 When preemptive and non-preemptive are
• used
CPU Scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1.switches from running to waiting state
2.switches from running to ready state
3.switches from waiting to ready
4.Terminates/exits
• When scheduling occurs in either 1st or 4th way, then the scheduling
scheme is called non-preemptive or cooperative, all other scheduling
scheme is termed as preemptive(eg. scheduling 2 and 3)
• In non-preemptive scheduling, once the CPU is allocated to a process,
the process keeps using the CPU until it either finishes its execution or it
enters in to a waiting state
 It is used on certain/ most hardware since it does not require special
hardware needed by preemptive scheduling
• In preemptive scheduling, An interrupt causes currently running process to give
up the CPU and be replaced by another process( the situations 2 nd and 3rd )
 The design of the operating system kernel is affected
 it incur cost associated with access to shared data
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Operating Systems
 Dispatcher
• The dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU
to the process selected by the short-term scheduler.
• This function involves the following:
• switching context
• switching to user mode
• jumping to the proper location in the user program to
restart that program
• The dispatcher should be as fast as possible, since it is
invoked during every process switch. The time it takes for the
dispatcher to stop one process and start another running is
known as the dispatch latency.

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Operating Systems
 Medium-term: which
process to swap in or
out?
• Controls the process remains
resident in memory and which
jobs must be swapped out to
reduce degree of
multiprogramming
 Long-term: which
process to admit?
Determines which programs are
admitted to the system for
processing & it Controls the
degree of multiprogramming
Attempts to keep a balanced mix
of processor-bound and I/O-
bound processes
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Operating Systems
 CPU Scheduling Criteria
The most common criteria used to compare scheduling algorithms:
 CPU Utilization
• The fraction of time a device is in use. ( ratio of in-use time / total
observation time )
 Throughput
• The number of job completions in a period of time. (jobs / second )
 Turnaround time
• The interval between the submission of a process to its execution
• It is the sum of the periods spent waiting to get the memory, waiting
in the ready queue, executing on the CPU an doing and I/O
 Waiting time
• The sum of the periods spent waiting in the ready queue
 Service time
• The time required by a device to handle a request.
 Response time
• Amount of time it takes from the submission of a request till the first
response is produced
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Operating Systems
 CPU Scheduling Optimization
•criteria
Maximum CPU utilization
• Maximum throughput time
• Minimize turnaround time
• Minimize waiting time
• Minimize response time

Note that:
It’s desirable to maximize CPU utilization and
throughput and minimize turnaround time, waiting
time and response time.

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Operating Systems
CPU Scheduling Algorithms
• Scheduling deals with the problem of deciding which of the
outstanding requests is to be allocated resources.
• Scheduling algorithms are used for distributing resources
among parties which simultaneously and asynchronously
request them. In OS (to share CPU time among both threads
and processes )
• The main purposes of scheduling algorithms are to minimize
resource starvation and to ensure fairness amongst the
parties utilizing the resources.
• There are many different scheduling algorithms:
1. First-Come, First Served(FCFS)
2. Shortest Job First(SJF)
3. Priority Based Scheduling
4. Round Robin Scheduling
5. Multi-Level Queues
6. Multi-Level Feedback Queues
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Operating Systems
1.First-Come, First Served(FCFS)
• In this algorithm, that process the requests the CPU first is
allocated the CPU first
• The implementation of this algorithm is handled by FIFO queue
• Arriving jobs are inserted in to the tail(rear) of the ready
queue and the process to be executed next is removed from
the front (head) of the ready queue
• Relative importance of jobs is measured by arrival time
• The average waiting time is quite too long
• Throughput can be low, since long processes can hog the CPU
• Turnaround time, waiting time and response time can be
high
• A long CPU-bound process may hog the CPU and may force
shorter processes to wait for a prolonged period.
• This may lead to a long queue of ready jobs in the ready queue

(convoy
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Operating Systems
 1.First-Come, First Served(FCFS) (cont.)
• The convoy effect results in a lower CPU and device utilization
• It’s a non-preemptive algorithm
• A process runs until it blocks for an I/O or it terminates
• Favors CPU-bound processes
• A CPU-bound process monopolizes the processor
• I/O-bound processes have to wait until completion of CPU-
bound process
• I/O-bound processes may have to wait even after their I/Os
are completed (poor device utilization)
• Better I/O device utilization could be achieved if I/O bound
processes had higher priority

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Operating Systems
 1.First-Come, First Served(FCFS) (cont.)

Example 1:
Consider the following processes that arrive at time zero, with the
length of the CPU burst given in milliseconds

Proces Burst Time • If the processes arrive in the order

s of P1, P2 and P3 and are served in
P1 27 the FCFS order, then the waiting
P2 9
time for each of the processes will
be as follows:
P3 3 P1 P2 P3
0 27 36 39
• Waiting time for P1 is 0 ms, meaning it starts
immediately
• Waiting time for P2 is 27 ms, before starting
• Waiting time for P3 is 36 ms
• Average waiting time = (0+27+36)/3=21 ms

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Operating Systems
1.First-Come, First Served (FCFS) (cont.)

* What if the order of the processes was P2, P3, P1? What will be the
average waiting time? Check [avg. waiting time= 7 ms] what do you
notice from this?
Example 2:
Average wait =((0) + (8-1) + (12-2) + (21-3) )/4 = 35/4 =
Proces Arriva Service
s l time time
8.75
1 0 8
2 1 4
Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 8-1; P3 = 12-2; P4=21-3
3 2 9
4 3 5

P1 P2 P3 P4
0 8 12 21 26

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Operating Systems
 2. Shortest Job First (SJF), Shortest Job Next (SJN)
• SJF policy selects the job with the shortest (expected) processing time
first.
• With this strategy the scheduler arranges processes with the least
estimated processing time remaining to be next in the queue. This
requires advance knowledge or estimations about the time required for a
process to complete
• Two schemes:
 Non-preemptive – once CPU is given to a process, it cannot be
preempted in the current CPU burst
 Preemptive – if a new process arrives with CPU burst length less
than the remaining time of current process, preempt.
• One major difficulty with SJF is the need to know or estimate the
processing time of each job (can only predict the future!)
• This scheme is know as the Shortest-Remaining-Time-First (SRTF)
• SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of
processes
• Starvation is possible, especially in a busy system with many small
processes being run.
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Operating Systems
 2. Shortest Job First (SJF), Shortest Job Next (SJN)

Example: SJF
a. NonPreemptive Proces Arriv Service
s al time
time
1 0 7

2 2 4
3 4 1
Average waiting time=(0+(8-2)+(7-
4 5 4
4)+(12-5))/4 =
4 b. preemptive

Average waiting time= ((11-2) + (5-4) + (4-4) +(7-5))/4 = 3

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Operating Systems
 3. Priority Based Scheduling
• Assign each process a priority. Schedule highest priority
first. All processes within same priority are FCFS
• Priority may be determined by user or by some default
mechanism
• The system may determine the priority based on memory
requirements, time limits, or other resource usage
• CPU allocated to process with highest priority
• Preemptive or non-preemptive
• Problem  Starvation – low priority processes may never
execute.
• Solution  Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of
the process
• Delicate balance between giving favorable response for
interactive jobs, but not starving batch jobs
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Operating Systems
 3. Priority Based Scheduling(cont…)
 EXAMPLE :Consider the following processes that arrive at time zero,
with the length of the CPU burst and priorities given.
Process Burst Time Priority
1 10 3
2 1 1
3 2 4
4 1 5
5 5 2
Using Priority scheduling, we would schedule these processes
according to the following Gant chart:

P2 P5 P1 P3 P4
0 1 6 16 18 19
Average waiting time = (6+0+16+18+1)/5 = 8.2

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 4. Round Robin (RR)
• Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum),
usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the
process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue
• The name of the algorithm comes from the round- robin principle
known from other fields, where each person takes an equal share
of something in turn
• If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum
is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at
most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q
time units
• Performance: Choosing a time quantum q:
• q large  FIFO
• q small  q must be large with respect to context switch,
otherwise overhead is too high

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Operating Systems
 4. Round Robin (RR) (cont.)

Example 1: RR with time quantum =20

Proces Burst
s time
P1 53

P2 17
P3 68
P4 24

P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P3 P4 P1 P3 P3
0 20 37 57 77 97 117121134154162
Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better
response

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Operating Systems
 4. Round Robin (RR) (cont.)

Example 2: RR with time quantum =4, no priority-based

preemption
Process Arrival Service
Time Time
1 0 8
2 1 4
3 2 9
4 3 5

Average wait = ( (20-0) + (8-1) + (26-2) + (25-3) )/4 = 74/4 = 18.5

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Operating Systems
 5.Multilevel Queue Scheduling
• Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues:
foreground (interactive)
background (batch)
• Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm
• foreground – RR
• background – FCFS
• Scheduling must be done between the queues
• Fixed priority scheduling; (i.e., serve all from foreground then
from background). Possibility of starvation.
• Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time
which it can schedule amongst its processes; i.e., 80% to
foreground in RR
• 20% to background in FCFS

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Operating Systems
5.Multilevel Queue Scheduling
· For example, could separate system processes, interactive,
batch, favored, unfavored processes.

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Operating Systems
6. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling
• A process can move between the various queues
• aging can be implemented this way
• Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the
following parameters:
• number of queues
• scheduling algorithms for each queue
• method to determine when to upgrade a process
• method to determine when to demote a process
• method used to determine which queue a process will
enter when that process needs service

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Operating Systems
 6. Multilevel Feedback Queue
Example:
• Three queues:
– Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
– Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
– Q2 – FCFS
• Scheduling
– A new job enters queue Q0: when it gains CPU, job receives 8
milliseconds. If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, job is moved
to queue Q1
– At Q1 job: it receives 16 additional milliseconds. If it still does
not complete, it is preempted and moved to queue Q2

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 6. Multilevel Feedback Queue
(cont.)

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 CPU Scheduling: using priorities
Here’s how the priorities are used in Windows systems

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 Scheduling Algorithms
• Real-time systems
• Hard real-time systems – required to complete a critical task within a
guaranteed amount of time
• Soft real-time computing – requires that critical processes receive
priority over less fortunate ones

• Multiple Processor Scheduling

 Different rules for homogeneous or heterogeneous processors
 Load sharing in the distribution of work, such that all processors have
an equal amount to do.
 Each processor can schedule from a common ready queue (equal
machines) OR can use a master slave arrangement

• Thread Scheduling
• Local Scheduling – How the user threads library decides which thread
to put onto an available LWP (Light Weight Process)--- process
contention scope
• JuneGlobal
16, 2025 Scheduling – How the kernel decides which kernel thread34to
run next
Operating Systems
 Linux Scheduling
• Two algorithms:
• time-sharing and real-time
• Time-sharing
– Prioritized credit-based – process with most credits is
scheduled next
– Credit subtracted when timer interrupt occurs
– When credit = 0, another process chosen
– When all processes have credit = 0, recrediting occurs
• Based on factors including priority and history
• Real-time
– Soft real-time
– Posix.1b compliant – two classes
• FCFS and RR
• Highest priority process runs first
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Operating Systems
 Algorithm Evaluation Summary
• Which algorithm is the best?

• The answer depends on many factors:

• the system workload (extremely variable)
• hardware support for the dispatcher
• relative importance of performance criteria (response time,
CPU utilization, throughput...)
• The evaluation method used (each has its limitations...)

• Which one works the best is application dependent

• General purpose OS will use priority based, round robin,
preemptive
• Real Time OS will use priority, no preemption

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Operating Systems
 Terminology for Examples

• AT: Arrival time of a process

• BT: Burst time of a process
• CT: completion time of a process
• WT: waiting time of a process
• TAT: turn around time
• ST: Scheduled time of a process

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Operating Systems
 Formulas

• Turn around time is the total time in which a

process is present in the system, irrespective to
the fact that process was waiting, doing I/O or
executing.
TAT=CT-AT=BT+WT
Weighted TAT= (CT-AT)/BT
• Wait Time of a process
WT=TAT-BT=CT-AT-BT

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Operating Systems
 Gantt Chart
• A graphical representation of process
scheduling information
• A timeline represented by rectangular blocks,
each block has a process Id,
• At time 0 P1 was scheduled for execution, at
time 2 P2 was scheduled
• Schedule length is 11 unit of time

Timelin
e

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Operating Systems
• Schedule length is the difference between
maximum completion time of any process and the
minimum arrival time of any process.
**(!3 number of schedules are possible with 3
processes)

SL= Max(CT)-Min(AT)
=11-0
=11
Throughput is the number of processes competed
per unit time
Th=No. of process completed/Shedule length
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Operating Systems
 FCFS example
• Selection Criteria: Basic criteria of selection
of process is AT(Arrival Time)
• Mode: It is Non-preemptive mode
• Assumptions: context switch time is
negligible, each process have only CPU burst
time and zero I/O burst time.
• Example: Given following processes, compute
TAT, SN
WT forPID
each processATusing FCFS
BT
1 P1 0 2
2 P2 1 3
3 P3 2 5
4 P4 3 4
5 P5 4 1

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Operating Systems
 solution

• First compute sum of all Burst times

ℇBT= 2+3+5+4+1
=15
So, on Gantt chart we need to make a timeline of
length 15, because in this amount of time all the
processes will finish their burst time.
So let us make Gantt chart for schedule using
FCFS:
Step 1: Select the process whose AT is smallest:
here P1 is arrived on time=0, so we select the P1
and schedule it on the processor.
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Operating Systems
 • For process P1,
Gantt chart for P1
Scheduled time is 0,
because it was given
processor at time 0, its
Burst time is 2 units, so
after completing its BT,
it was completed, so CT
of P1 is 2. its WT is zero
because it was
immediately scheduled.
Also TAT=CT-AT=2-0=2

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Operating Systems
 • P2 was arrived at AT=1,
Gantt Chart for P2
but at that time CPU
was held by P1. In, non-
preemptive settings P2
will wait for P1. On time
2, it is Schedule time
for P2. its BT is 3 so its
completion time is
CT=BT+ST=3+2=5
• TAT(P2)=CT(P2)-AT(P2)
=5-1=4

WT(P2)=TAT(P2)-BT(P2)
=4-3=1

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Operating Systems
 Complete Gantt Chart
• Important to see AT and
Scheduled times of
processes in the Gantt
chart.
• Here schedule length is
SL=15-0=15

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 Assignment question:FCFS

• Compute ST, CT, TAT

and WT for each
process
• Compute SL
• Compute TH

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Operating Systems
 Non preemptive Shortest Job First
algorithm
Criteria
• The next process will be selected for execution whose
Burst time is least.
• Non preemptive SJF allow a process to finish its BT
once scheduled and do not allow forceful yield of
processor
• In case of preemptive version of SJF, if another
process of shorter BT arrives during schedule of a
process, we prefer to force the previous process to
leave the CPU and execute shorter BT process first.

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Operating Systems
 Example: SJF-NP

Question: Compute:
• WT, TAT, ST etc.
• TH
• SL

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Operating Systems
 • Since at time 0, only P1
was in system so w e
have to schedule it.
• However process P4
Schedule First process and P6 have shorter
burst time but they
have not arrived at
time 0,
• P1 will execute upto
time =3, in the mean
time P2 and P3 will
arrive.
• However AT(P2)<AT(P3)
• But BT(P3)<BT(P2)
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So after completion of P1,
49

Operating Systems
P3 will be selected.
 • Here the SL is 13
Full solution
• Each process is
selected and scheduled
based on BT
• You can compute
individual
TAT, WT and ST, CT etc.

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Operating Systems
 Assignment: SJF-NP
• Solve following using
NP-SJF and compute
Question TAT, CT, WT, ST for
each process
• Use preemptive SJF

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Operating Systems