SENSORS &

TRANSDUCERP
ART-1
 Sensor
► Sensor are devices which produce a proportional
output signal (mechanical, electrical, magnetic
etc.,) when exposed to a physical phenomenon
(pressure, temperature, displacement , force etc.,).
► Sensor is an element which produces a signal
relating to the quantity being measured.
► An input device which provides an output (signal)
with respect to a specific physical quantity.
 Transducer
► Transducer are devices which converts an input of one
form of energy in to an output of another form of energy
► It is also defined as an element when subjected to some
physical change experiences a related change or an
element which converts a specified measured into a
usable output by using a transduction principle.
 DEFINITION

SENSOR TRANSDUCER
► 1. It is defined as an element ► 1.It is defined as an element
which produces signal relating when subjected to some
to the quantity being physical change experiences a
measured. related change or an element
which converts a specified
► 2. sensor can be defined as “A measured into a usable output
device which provides a usable by using a transduction
output in response to a principle.
specified measured.”
► 2. It can also be defined as a
device that converts a signal
from one form of energy to
another form
 Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
► Based on its Power Requirement
Active Transducers generate electric current or voltage directly in response to
environmental stimulation (Active transducers are those which do not require any power
source for their operation.
• They work on the energy conversion principle.
• They produce an electrical signal proportional to the input (physical quantity). For
example, a thermocouple is an active transducer.)

Passive Transducers produce a change in some passive electrical quantity, such as

capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as a result of stimulation.
• These usually require additional electrical energy for excitation.
• (Transducers which require an external power source for their operation is called as a
passive transducer.
• They produce an output signal in the form of some variation in resistance, capacitance or
any other electrical parameter, which than has to be converted to an equivalent current
 Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
► Based on the type of output
(i) Primary Sensor
Primary sensors produce the output
which is the direct measure of the input phenomenon.
(ii) Secondary Sensor
Secondary sensors produce output which is
not the direct representation of the physical
phenomenon.
 Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
► Based on the Principle of Operation
1. Resistive
2. Capacitive
3. Inductive
4. Ultrasonic
5. Piezoelectric
6. Photoelectric
 Performance Terminology
► Static characteristics
Static characteristics of an instrument are the parameters
which are more or less constant or varying very slowly with time.
► Dynamic characteristics
Sensors and actuators respond to inputs that change with
time. Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are the parameters
which are varying with time.
Characteristics of Mechanical
system
• In industrial process, measuring device senses various parameters under observation.
• To obtain better performance from any measuring device, a no. of characteristics must be considered.
• Static • Dynamic
Static
Characteristics
1. Range and Span

• The range of the transducer defines the limit between which the input can vary.
• Eg: Load cell for force measurement have a range from 0 to 50kN.
• The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
• Eg: Span for load cell is 50kN (50-0).
2. Error
• The difference between the measurement result and the true value of the quantity being measured.
• Error = Measured value – True value
• Eg: When a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25℃, when the actual
temperature is 24℃, then the error is +1℃.
3. Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.

• Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other.
• Precision is independent of accuracy.
• Eg: A temperature-measuring instrument might, for example, be specified
as having an accuracy of ±2°C. This would mean that the reading given by
the instrument can be expected to lie within plus or minus 2°C of the true
value.
4. Sensitivity

• The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is per unit input, i.e. output/input.
• Eg: A pressure sensor that has a measurement range of 0–100PSI and an output range of 0–5V. Its
sensitivity is .05 Volt/PSI.
• If the sensitivity or output level changes with time, temperature or any other parameter, it is known as sensitivity
drift.
5. Hysteresis

• Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being
measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing change.
• This effect is called hysteresis.
• It is reduced by taking measurements on both direction and taking its arithmetic
mean.
6. Non – Linearity Error

• For many transducers a linear relationship between the input and output is
assumed over the working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is
assumed to give a straight line.
• The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight line.
• Eg: transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as
having a non-linearity error of ±0.5% of the full range.
7. Repeatability and Reproducibility

• Ability of an instrument to repeat a group of measurements with the following conditions such as,
• Same Location
• Same Instrument
• Same Procedure
• Same Observer
- Under same condition and repetition over a period of time.
• Reproducibility refers to the degree of agreement between the results of experiments conducted by
• Different Individual
• Different Instrument
• Different Location
8. Stability

• The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.
• The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
• The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero input.

9. Dead Band / Time

• The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no output.
• Eg: Bearing friction in a flowmeter using a rotor might mean that there is no output until the input has
reached a particular velocity threshold.
• The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until the output begins to respond and change.
10. Resolution

• The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an observable change in the output.
• Eg: A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of such a sensor, the output going up in steps as the
potentiometer slider moves from one wire turn to the next
Dynamic
Characteristics
1. Response Time
• This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a step
input, is applied to the transducer up to the point at which
the transducer gives an output corresponding to some
specified percentage.
• 95%, of the value of the input

2. Time Constant
• The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to changes in its input.
• Bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a changing input signal. 63.2% response time
3. Rise Time
• This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the steady-state output.
• The time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90 or 95% of the steady-state value.
4. Settling Time

• This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some percentage.
• 2%, of the steady-state value.
 Displacement Sensor
► Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of
movement of an object (or) measure the amount by which an object
has been moved.
► Types of Displacement Sensor
1. Potentiometer sensor
2.Strain gauge sensor
3. Capacitive sensor
4.Inductive sensors (LVDT)
Potentiometer Displacement
Sensor
1. POTENTIOMETER

• The potentiometer is also called as pots and it one of the most commonly used device for
measuring the displacement of the body.
• The potentiometer is the electrical type of transducer or sensor and it is of resistive type because
it works on the principle of change of resistance of the wire with its length.
• The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire, thus as the length of
the wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.
• It measures the displacement of an object in a linear or rotary motion.
1-a). Linear Potentiometer
• The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be
changed manually by the sliding contacts.
• Here the voltage Vs is applied across the two points of the wire A and B.
• C is the variable contact point between A and B. V C
s
• The point C is the slider whose position is changed by the operator or by
the motion of the body whose displacement is to be measured.
• The voltage Vo is measured between the points B and C.
• As per the resistance law of the conductor, the resistance of the
conductor BC changes as the length of the wire BC changes.
• Accordingly the output voltage Vo between B and C also changes.
• The change in voltage or the resistance is proportional to the change in
the displacement of the body.
Note: Refer videos for Multimeter readings
1-b). Rotary Potentiometer
• Rotary potentiometer (the most common type) vary their resistive
value as a result of an angular movement.
• Rotating a knob or dial attached to the shaft causes the internal
wiper to sweep around a curved resistive element.
• The most common use of a rotary potentiometer is the volume-
control pot.
• As they are mechanically controlled, they can be used to the
measure the rotation of a shaft, but a single-turn rotary
potentiometer normally offers less than 300 degrees of angular
movement from minimum to maximum resistance.
• However, multi-turn potentiometers, called trimmers, are available
that allow for a higher degree of rotational accuracy (to implement
in printed circuit boards)
Applications
• Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio equipment, changing
loudness, frequency attenuation, and other characteristics of audio signals.
• Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response.
• Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in order to create "closed loop" control, such as
in a servomechanism.
• Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers because of the simplicity
of construction and because they can give a large output signal.
2-a). LVDT (Linear Variable Diff. Transducer)
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of
linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general.

• It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.

• The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in
series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
• A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the
insulated tube.
• The working principle of the LVDT is the mutual induction.
• In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both the minor windings flux will equal,
so the induced emf is similar in the windings. The output voltage is, ES1 = ES2; E0 = ES1 – ES2 = 0.
• In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted up from the null point. In this case, the flux involving with
minor winding S1 is greater than S2 winding. ES1 > ES2; E0 = ES1 – ES2 = Positive.
• In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down from the null point. In this case, the flux involving
with minor winding S1 is lesser than S2 winding. ES1 < ES2; E0 = ES1 – ES2 = Negative.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Friction Free Operation 1. Gets damaged by temperature and vibration.
2. Unlimited Mechanical Life 2. The receiving element must be operated on AC
3. Single Axis Sensitivity signals, otherwise demodulator network is required.
4. Environmentally Robust
Applications
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
• Used in elevators.
Advantages
1. Durability
2. Inexpensive
3. Easy to manage electronic parts
4. Compact Size
Applications
• RVDTs have a well-established reputation for reliability even in the harshest working conditions.
• As such, it is a preferred sensor in manufacturing heavy duty equipment within the aerospace and oil and
gas industries.
• In addition to these, other typical applications of RVDTs include:
• Hydraulic pumps
• Rotary actuators
• Valve positioning
• Throttle lever positioning
3. Capacitive Transducer
• The capacitive transducer or sensor is a capacitor with variable capacitance.
• It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
• The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure, force and other physical
quantities.
• The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the mechanical
movement into an electrical signal.
• In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is fixed, but in variable capacitance
transducers the distance between the two plates is variable.
The capacitive transducer uses the following three effects.
• Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.
• The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
• The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.
1. Overlapping of capacitor plates

• Here one of the plates is fixed while the other is movable, depending on the nature of the movement,
there may be variation in the area A or the distance d.
• The change in capacitance is given as,
• In case of area variation, where the capacitance plate moves x,
1-a). Overlapping of capacitor plates (Circular)
2. Change of dielectric between plates.

3. Change of distance between plates.

Push Pull Sensor:
(i) Push pull displacement sensor is used to overcome the
non-linearity error.
(ii) The sensor consists of three plates with the upper pair
forming one capacitor and the lower pair forming another
capacitor.
(iii) The displacement moves central plate between the two
other plates.
(iv) If the central plate moves downwards.
(v) The plate separation of the upper capacitor increases and
the separation of the lower one decreases.
Advantage of Capacitive Transducer
• It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small systems.
• The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
• It requires small power for operation.
Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer
• The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.
• The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray magnetic field.
• Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge effect which is
controlled by using the guard ring.
Applications
• Determining humidity. (Dielectrically glass-ceramic materials for capacitive sensors).
• Linear and Angular displacement.
• Pressure variations by using the variable capacitance.
❖ Strain gauges are passive type resistance sensor whose electrical
resistance change when it is stretched or compressed (mechanically
strained) under the application of force.
❖ The electrical resistance is changed due to the change in length
(increases) and cross sectional area (decreases) of the strain gauge.
❖ This change in resistance is then usually converted into voltage by
connecting one, two or four similar gauges as an arm of a Wheatstone
bridge (known as Strain Gauge Bridge) and applying excitation to the
bridge. The bridge output voltage is then a measure of strain, sensed by
each strain gauge
Change in Resistance relation
Equation
8. Strain Gauge Sensor
Types of Strain Gauges

• Based on the principle of their working – Mechanical, Optical, Acoustical, Pneumatic or Electrical.
• Based on mounting – Bonded and Unbonded.
• Based on construction – Foil, Semiconductor and Photoelectric

Applications
• Rail monitoring
• Cable bridges
• Aerospace
• Nuclear power plants
 Unbonded Type Strain Gauges

► In unbonded type, fine wire filaments (resistance wires) are stretched

around rigid and electrically insulated pins on two frames.
► One frame is fixed and the other is movable.
► The frames are held close with a spring loaded mechanism.
► Due to the relative motion between two frames, the resistance wires
are strained.
► This strain is then can be detected through measurement of the
change in electrical resistance since they are not cemented with the
surfaces, they can be detached and reused
 Bonded Type Strain Gauges

► Bonded type strain gauges consists of resistance elements arranged

in the form of a grid of fine wire, which is cemented to a thin paper
sheet or very thin Bakelite sheet, and covered with a protective sheet
of paper or thin Bakelite
► The paper sheet is then bonded to the surface to be strained. The
gauges have a bonding material which acts an adhesive material
during bonding process of a surface with the gauge element.
► Classification of Bonded Type Strain Gauges:
(i) Fine wire gauges
(ii) Metal foil gauges
(iii)Semiconductor filament type
THANK YOU