Mechatronics

(MEMEC20/ MPMEC20)

UNIT – 2
Sensors & Signal Conditioning
Topics
• Sensors
• Performance terminologies
• Displacement, velocity, force, pressure, flow, temperature and light sensors
• Signal conditioning
• Operational amplifier
• Digital signals
• ADC, DAC
• Digital logic
• Logic gates and its application
 Introduction to Sensors
• The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to
the quantity being measured.
• Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to some physical
change experience a related change.
• A sensor/transducer is said to be analogue if it gives an output which is
analogue and so changes in a continuous way and typically has an output
whose size is proportional to the size of the variable being measured.
• The term digital is used if the systems give outputs which are digital in
nature.
• The sensor and signal conditioning combined with a microprocessor all in
the same package. Such an arrangement is termed a smart sensor.
Introduction to Sensors
Introduction to Sensors
Performance terminology
• Range and span
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input
can vary.

• Accuracy:
Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a measurement
system might be wrong.
 Performance terminology
• Sensitivity
The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is
per unit input, i.e. output/input.

• Error:
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured:
Error=measured value-true value
Performance terminology
• Hysteresis error
Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity
being measured according to whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. This
effect is called hysteresis.
Performance terminology
• Non-linearity error
The term non-linearity error is used for the error that occurs as a result of
assuming a linear relationship between the input and output over the
working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to
give a straight line.
Performance terminology
Repeatability/reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to
describe its ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the
same input value.
Performance terminology
Stability and Drift
• The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time.
• The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
Performance terminology
Dead band/time
• The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values
for which there is no output.
• The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until the output
begins to respond and change.
Performance terminology
Resolution
• The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce
an observable change in the output.
Performance terminology
Output Impedance
• Measure of the source's propensity to drop in voltage when the load draws
current.
• When a sensor giving an electrical output is interfaced with an electronic
circuit it is necessary to know the output impedance since this impedance
is being connected in either series or parallel with that circuit.
Performance terminology
Example: Performance parameter required to design a strain gauge
pressure transducer:
70-1000 kPa/2000-70000 kPa; 10 V; 40 mV; ±0.5%; -54ºC - +120ºC ; 0.03%
Static and Dynamic characteristics
• Static characteristics are the values given when steady-state
conditions occur, i.e. the values given when the transducer has
settled down after having received some input.
• The dynamic characteristics refer to the behaviour between the time
that the input value changes and the time that the value given by the
transducer settles down to the steady-state value.
Dynamic characteristics are stated in terms of the response of the transducer
to inputs in particular forms.
1. Response time
2. Time constant
3. Rise time
4. Settling time
Response to a step input
Thermometer in liquid
 cont..
Response time:
• This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a step input, is
applied to the transducer up to the point at which the transducer
gives an output corresponding to some specified percentage, e.g.
95%, of the value of the input shown in figure.
• For example, if a mercury-in-glass thermometer is put into a hot
liquid there can be quite an appreciable time lapse, perhaps as much
as 100 s or more, before the thermometer indicates 95% of the actual
temperature of the liquid.
 cont..
Time constant:
• This is the 63.2% response time shown in figure.
• A thermocouple in air might have a time constant of perhaps 40 to
100 s.
• The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so
how fast it will react to changes in its input.
• The bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a changing
input signal.
 cont..
Rise time:
• This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady-state output.
• Often the rise time refers to the time taken for the output to rise from
10% of the steady-state value to 90 or 95% of the steady-state value.

Settling time:
• This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state value.
Displacement and position sensors

• Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by

which some object has been moved.
• Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of some
object in relation to some reference point.
• Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into two basic types:
• Contact sensors
• Non-contact sensor
 Potentiometer sensor
• A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which
can be moved over the length of the element.
• Such elements can be used for linear or rotary displacements, the displacement
being converted into a potential difference.
 Potentiometer sensor
• It consist of a constant resistance per unit length with
sliding contact which can be moved over the length of
the element.
• With a constant source voltage Vs, the output voltage V0
is a fractional of the input voltage:

• So, for rotary potentiometer the output voltage is

proportional to the angle through which the slider has
rotated, hence an angular displacement can be
converted into a potential difference
 Potentiometer sensor cont….
• It is very important to consider the effect of the load resistance RL connected across
the output.
• The load voltage VL is only directly proportional to V0 if the load resistance is infinite.
 Strain-gauged element
• The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip or a strip of
semiconductor material which is wafer-like and can be stuck onto surfaces like a postage
stamp.
• When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance ∆R/R
being proportional to the strain Ɛ,

• Since strain is the ratio (change in length/original length) then the resistance change of a
strain gauge is a measurement of the change in length of the element to which the strain
gauge is attached.
 Capacitive Element
The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:

For the displacement changing the plate separation:

Hence the change in capacitance ∆C as a fraction of the initial capacitance is given

by:
 Capacitive Element-Push Pull Displacement sensor
• This has three plates with the upper pair forming
one capacitor and the lower pair another capacitor.
• The displacement moves the central plate between
the two other plates.
• The result of, for example, the central plate moving
downwards is to increase the plate separation of
the upper capacitor and decrease the separation of
the lower capacitor. Thus,
 Differential transformers
• The linear variable differential transformer, generally referred to by the acronym LVDT,
consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.
• The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are identical secondary coils which
are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
• A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of the displacement being
monitored.
• When there is an alternating voltage input to the
primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the
secondary coils.
• With the magnetic core central, the amount of magnetic
material in each of the secondary coils is the same.
• Thus, the e.m.f.s induced in each coil are the same.
• Since they are so connected that their outputs oppose
each other, the net result is zero output.
 Differential transformers cont….
• When the core is displaced from the central position there is a
greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other, e.g.
more in secondary coil 2 than coil 1.
• The result is that a greater e.m.f. is induced in one coil than the
other. There is then a net output from the two coils.
• Since a greater displacement means even more core in one coil than
the other, the output, the difference between the two e.m.f.s
increases the greater the displacement being monitored.
• The e.m.f. induced in a secondary coil by a changing current i in the
primary coil is given by:

• The e.m.f.s induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 can be

represented by:
Velocity sensors
Velocity sensors cont….
• Optical encoders
encoder is a device that provides a digital
output as a result of a linear or angular
displacement.
incremental encoders
absolute encoders
Incremental encoder: (a) the basic principle,
(b) concentric tracks

3-bit absolute encoder

Velocity sensors cont….
Pyroelectric sensors
FORCE SENSOR
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
ORIFICE PLATE
LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR
LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR

• Changes that are commonly used to monitor temperature are the

expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases.
• The change in electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors
and thermoelectric e.m.f.s.
• Types of temperature sensor - Bimetallic strip, Thermistors,
Thermodiodes and transistors, Thermocouples etc.
BIMETALLIC STRIP
THERMISTOR
Thermodiodes and Transistors
THERMOCOUPLE
COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION
LIGHT SENSORS
 SIGNAL CONDITIONING

• The output signal from the sensor of a measurement system needs to be processed for next
stage of the operation.

• The signal may be too small and have to be amplified, contain interference which has to be
removed, be non-linear and require linearisation, be analogue and have to be made digital or
vice-versa, be a resistance change and have to be made into a current change, be a voltage
change and have to be made into a suitable size current change, etc.

• All these changes can be referred to as Signal conditioning .

• For example, the output from a thermocouple is a small voltage, a few millivolts. A signal
conditioning module might then be used to convert this into a suitable size current signal,
provide noise rejection, linearisation and cold junction compensation (i.e. compensating for
the cold junction not being at 0°C).
 SIGNAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES
• Protection to prevent damage to the next element, e.g. a microprocessor, as a result of high current or voltage.
Thus there can be series current limiting resistors, fuses to break if the current is too high, polarity protection
and voltage limitation circuits.
• Getting the signal into the right type of signal. This can mean making the signal into a d.c. voltage or current.
Thus, for example, the resistance change of a strain gauge has to be converted into a voltage change. This can
be done by the use of a Wheatstone bridge and using the out-of-balance voltage . It can mean making the
signal digital or analogue .
• Getting the level of the signal right. The signal from a thermocouple might be just a few millivolts. If the signal
is to be fed into an analogue-to-digital converter for inputting to a microprocessor then it needs to be made
much larger, volts rather than millivolts. Operational amplifiers are widely used for amplification.
• Eliminating or reducing noise. For example, filters might be used to eliminate mains noise from a signal
• Signal manipulation, e.g. making it a linear function of some variable. The signals from some sensors, e.g. a
flowmeter, are non-linear and thus a signal conditioner might be used so that the signal fed on to the next
element is linear.
Overview to op-amps
 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• An Amplifier is a system which has an input and an output.
• Voltage gain of the amplifier being the ratio of the output and input voltages when each is
measured relative to the earth.
• Input impedance of an amplifier is defined as the input voltage divided by the input current,
• Output impedance being the output voltage divided by the output current.
• The operational amplifier is a high-gain d.c. amplifier, the gain typically being of the order of
100000 or more, that is supplied as an integrated circuit on a silicon chip.
• It has two inputs, known as the inverting input (-) and the non-inverting input (+).
• The output depends on the connections made to these inputs.
• There are other inputs to the operational amplifier, namely a negative voltage supply, a
positive voltage supply and two inputs termed offset null, these being to enable corrections
to be made for the non-ideal behaviour of the amplifier.
 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• Figure shows the pin connections for a 741-type operational amplifier.
• An ideal model for an operational amplifier is as an amplifier with an infinite
gain, infinite input impedance and zero output impedance, i.e. the output
voltage is independent of the load.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
• The input is taken to the inverting input through a resistor R1 with the non-inverting input being connected to ground. A
feedback path is provided from the output, via the resistor R2 to the inverting input.
• The operational amplifier has a voltage gain of about 100 000 and the change in output voltage is typically limited to about
±10V. The input voltage must then be between -0.0001 and +0.0001 V. This is virtually zero and so point X is at virtually earth
potential. For this reason it is called a virtual earth.
• The potential difference across R1 is (Vin - VX ). For an ideal operational amplifier with an infinite gain, and hence VX = 0, the
input potential Vin can be considered to be across R1 is (Vin - VX ).

• The operational amplifier has a very high impedance between its input terminals for a 741 about 2MΩ. Thus virtually no
current flows through X into it.

• Virtually no current flows through X into it. For an ideal operational amplifier the input impedance is taken to be infinite and
so there is no current flow through X.
• Hence the current I1 through R1 must be the current through R2. The potential difference across R2 is (VX – Vout), since VX is
zero for the ideal amplifier, the potential difference across R2 is -Vout.
• Thus, Vout = I1R2
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
• Voltage gain of circuit is Vout / Vin = -R2 /R1
• Thus the voltage gain of the circuit is determined solely by the relative values of
R2 and R1. The negative sign indicates that the output is inverted, i.e. 180° out
of phase, with respect to the input.
• The inverting amplifier circuit can be used with sensor to give a current to
voltage converter, the photodiode being reverse bias connected in place of
resistor R1, and so enable the output to be used as input to a microcontroller.
 NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER
• Non-inverting amplifier is an Amplifier with positive voltage gain
• The output can be considered to be taken from across a potential divider
circuit consisting of R1 in series with R2. The voltage VX is then the fraction R1 /
(R1+ R2 ) of the output voltage

• Since there is virtually no current through the operational amplifier between

the two inputs there can be virtually no potential difference between them.
Thus, with the ideal operational amplifier, we must have VX = Vin
 NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
• A particular form of this amplifier is when the feedback loop is a short circuit, i.e. R2 = 0.
Then the voltage gain is 1.
• The input to the circuit is into a large resistance, the input resistance typically being 2 MV.
The output resistance, i.e. the resistance between the output terminal and the ground line,
is, however, much smaller, e.g. 75 V.

• Thus the resistance in the circuit that follows

is a relatively small one and is less likely to
load that circuit. Such an amplifier is
referred to as a Voltage follower.
• Non-Inverting amplifier(a) and voltage
follower(b).
 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
• As with the inverting amplifier, X is a virtual earth. Thus the sum of the
currents entering X must equal that leaving it. Hence
• v
 INTEGRATING AND DIFFERENTIATING AMPLIFIERS
• Consider an inverting operational amplifier circuit with the feedback being via a capacitor
 INTEGRATING AND DIFFERENTIATING AMPLIFIERS
• A differentiation circuit can be produced if the capacitor and resistor are
interchanged in the circuit for the integrating amplifier. The input current iin to
capacitor C is dq/dt = C dv/dt. With the ideal case of zero op-amp current, this is also
the current through the feedback resistor R, i.e. – vout/R and so

• At high frequencies the differentiator circuit is susceptible to stability and noise

problems. A solution is to add an input resistor Rin to limit the gain at high
frequencies and so reduce the problem.
DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
 LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER
• Some sensors have outputs which are non-linear.
• The output from a thermocouple is not a perfectly linear function of the temperature
difference between its junctions. A signal conditioner might then be used to linearize the
output from such a sensor.
• This can be done using an operational amplifier circuit which is designed to have a non-
linear relationship between its input and output so that when its input is non-linear, the
output is linear. This is achieved by a suitable choice of component for the feedback loop.
• The feedback loop contains a diode (or a transistor with a grounded base). The diode has a
non-linear characteristic. It might be represented by (V=C ln I), where C is a constant.
Then, since the current through the feedback loop is the same as the current through the
input resistance and the potential difference across the diode is -Vout
 LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER
• We have
• K is constant. If the input Vin is provided by a sensor with an input t, where Vin
= A eat, with A and a being constants
• The result is a linear relationship between Vout and t.
 COMPARATOR
• A comparator indicates which of two voltages is the larger.
• An operational amplifier used with no feedback or other components can be used as a
comparator.
• One of the voltages is applied to the inverting input and the other to the non-inverting input
• When the non-inverting input is greater than the inverting
input by more than a small fraction of a volt then the
output jumps to a steady positive saturation voltage of
typically +10 V. When the inverting input is greater than the
non-inverting input then the output jumps to a steady
negative saturation voltage of typically -10 V.
• Such a circuit can be used to determine when a voltage
exceeds a certain level, the output then being used to
perhaps initiate some action.
 COMPARATOR
• An illustration of such a use is shown. This is designed so that when a critical temperature is
reached a relay is activated and initiates some response.
• The circuit has a Wheatstone bridge with a thermistor in one arm. The resistors in the bridge have
their resistances selected so that at the critical temperature the bridge will be balanced. When
the temperature is below this value the thermistor resistance R1 is more than R2 and the bridge is
out of balance.
• As a consequence there is a voltage difference between the inputs to the operational amplifier
and it gives an output at its lower saturated level.
• This keeps the transistor off, i.e. both the base–emitter and base–collector junctions are reverse
biased, and so no current passes through the relay coil. When the temperature rises and the
resistance of the thermistor falls, the bridge becomes balanced.
• The operational amplifier then switches to its upper saturation level. Consequently the transistor
is switched on, i.e. its junctions become forward biased, and the relay energised.
 REAL AMPLIFIER
• Operational amplifiers are not ideal element. A particularly significant problem is that of the
offset voltage
• An operational amplifier is a high-gain amplifier which amplifies the difference between its
two inputs. Thus if the two inputs are shorted we might expect to obtain no output. In real
practice this does not occur and quite a large output voltage might be detected.
• This effect is produced by imbalances in the internal circuitry in the operational amplifier.
The output voltage can be made zero by applying a suitable voltage between the input
terminals. This is known as the offset voltage.
• The imbalances within the operational amplifier are corrected
by adjusting the position of the slider until with no input to
the amplifier there is no output. Typically a general-purpose
amplifier will have an offset voltage between 1 and 5 mV.
• Figure shows correcting the offset voltage.
 REAL AMPLIFIER
• Operational amplifiers draw small currents at the input terminals in order to bias the input
transistors.
• The bias current flowing through the source resistance at each terminal generates a voltage
in series with the input. Ideally, the bias currents at the two inputs will be equal.
• But, in practice this will not be the case. Thus the effect of these bias currents is to produce
an output voltage when there is no input signal and the output should be zero.
• This is particularly a problem when the amplifier is operating with d.c. voltages. The
average value of the two bias currents is termed the input bias current.
• For a general-purpose operational amplifier, a typical value is about 100 nA.
• The difference between the two bias currents is termed the input-offset current. Ideally
this would be zero, but for a typical general purpose amplifier it is likely to be about 10 nA,
about 10 to 25% of the input bias current.
 REAL AMPLIFIER

• An important parameter which affects the use of an operational amplifier with alternating
current applications is the slew rate.
• This is the maximum rate of change at which the output voltage can change with time in
response to a perfect step-function input.
• Typical values range from 0.2 V/μs to over 20 V/μs. With high frequencies, the large-signal
operation of an amplifier is determined by how fast the output can swing from one voltage to
another.
• Thus for use with high-frequency inputs a high value of slew rate is required.
Need for A-D and D-A convertors
• Output from most sensors tends to be in analogue form

• The analogue output from the sensor has to be converted into a

digital form before it can be used as an input to the microprocessor

• Most actuators operate with analogue inputs and so the digital

output from a microprocessor has to be converted into an analogue
form before it can be used as an input by the actuator
 Analogue-to-Digital conversion
• Involves converting analogue
signals into binary words
• Clock supplies regular time signal
pulses to the analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC) and every time it
receives a pulse it samples the
analogue signal
• The result of the sampling is a
series of narrow pulses (Fig.-d)

(a) Analogue-to-digital conversion, (b) analogue input, (c) clock

signal, (d) sampled signal, (e) sampled and held signal
 cont..
• A sample and hold unit is then used to hold each sampled value until
the next pulse occurs (Fig.-e)
• The sample and hold unit is necessary because the ADC requires a
finite amount of time, termed the conversion time, to convert the
analogue signal into a digital one
• Relationship between the sampled and held
input and the output for a digital output
which is restricted to 3 bits is given by 23=8
• Since the output of the ADC to represent the
analogue input can be only one of these
eight possible levels, there is a range of
inputs for which the output does not change.
 cont..
• The eight possible output levels are termed quantisation levels
• The difference in analogue voltage between two adjacent levels is
termed the quantisation interval
• Because of the step-like nature of the relationship, the digital output
is not always proportional to the analogue input and thus there will
be error, this being termed the quantisation error
• Resolution of the element: Word length possible determines the
resolution of the element, i.e. the smallest change in input which will
result in a change in the digital output
• With a word length of n bits the full-scale analogue input VFS is divided into 2n
pieces; resolution = VFS/2n
cont..
Digital-to-Analogue conversion
• Input to a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) is a binary word
• Output is an analogue signal that represents the weighted sum of the
non-zero bits represented by the word
Logic Gates - AND gate
• Relationship between the
inputs and the outputs of an
AND gate in the form of an
Switch Representation
equation, termed a Boolean Symbolic Representation
equation [A.B=Q]
• Relationships between inputs
to a logic gate and the outputs
can be tabulated in a form
known as a truth table
 cont..

Signal Representation
OR gate
Boolean equation:
A+B=Q
Switch Representation Symbolic Representation

Signal Representation
NOT gate
Boolean equation:

Symbolic Representation

Signal Representation
NAND gate
Boolean equation:

Symbolic Representation

Signal Representation
NOR gate
Boolean equation:

Symbolic Representation

Signal Representation
XOR gate
Boolean equation:
expression for XOR gate cannot
determined directly Symbolic Representation

Signal Representation
Applications of logic gates
• Parity generators

• Digital comparator

• Coder

• Code converter