Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
• What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, temperature, and deformation?
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and temperature?

1
View of an Integrated Circuit
• Scanning electron micrographs of an IC:
Al (d) (a)
(d)

Si
(doped)
45 mm 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
-- Si shows up as light regions. (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

-- Al shows up as light regions. (c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. 12.27(a), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Figs. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.27, Callister
(Fig. 12.27 is courtesy Nick Gonzales, National
& Rethwisch 8e.
Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan, UT.)
2
Electrical Conduction
• Ohm's Law: V=IR
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)

• Resistivity, r:
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry surface area
RA of current flow

 l
current flow
path length
• Conductivity, s 1

 
A thick copper wire and a thin copper wire have different
resistance, but their resistivity is the same because they’re
 .
made of the same material 3
Electrical Properties
• Which will have the greater resistance?


2 2  8
R1  
D D 2 D2
  
2 

 
   R1
2D R2   2 
2D  D
2
8
   
   2 
• Analogous to flow of water in a pipe
• Resistance depends on sample geometry and size.


4
Definitions
Further definitions
J= <= another way to state Ohm’s law

J  current density current I

  like a flux
surface area A
  electric field potential = V/

J =  (V/ )

Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient

5
Conductivity: Comparison
• Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS conductors CERAMICS
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10 -11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
-14
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

6
Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?

 100 m

Cu wire - I = 2.5 A +

V


100 m
< 1.5 V
 V
R 
A I 2.5 A
D 2
4 6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1
Solve to get D > 1.87 mm

7
Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

8
Band Structure Representation

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

9
Conduction & Electron Transport
• Metals (Conductors):
-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.
-- thermal energy Partially filled band Overlapping bands
excites electrons
Energy Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states. band
-- two types of band GAP empty
structures for metals band
- partially filled band partly
- empty band that filled filled

filled states
band

filled states
overlaps filled band band

filled filled
band band

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Energy Band Structures: Insulators & Semiconductors

• Insulators: • Semiconductors:
-- wide band gap (> 2 eV) -- narrow band gap (< 2 eV)
-- few electrons excited -- more electrons excited
across band gap across band gap
Energy empty Energy empty
conduction conduction
band band
GAP ?
GAP

filled filled

filled states
filled states

valence valence
band band

filled filled
band band
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Metals: Influence of Temperature and Impurities
on Resistivity
• Presence of imperfections increases resistivity
-- grain boundaries
These act to scatter
-- dislocations
electrons so that they
-- impurity atoms take a less direct path.
-- vacancies
6 Ni
t%
2a
Resistivity, r

.3 • Resistivity
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

5 +3 %Ni
Cu 12 a t increases with:
4 + 1 .
C u i -- temperature
e d %N
3 r m at -- wt% impurity
defo d
+ 1 . 12
Cu -- %CW
2 i
” C u
1 r e  = thermal
t
“Pu
0 -200 -100 0 T (ºC) + impurity
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8
adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A.
+ deformation
Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
12
Book Company, New York, 1970.)
Charge Carriers in Insulators and
Semiconductors
Adapted from Fig. 18.6(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Two types of electronic charge carriers:

Free Electron
– negative charge
– in conduction band

Hole
– positive charge
– vacant electron state in
the valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

13
Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon & germanium
• Group IVA materials

• Compound semiconductors
– III-V compounds
• Ex: GaAs & InSb
– II-VI compounds
• Ex: CdS & ZnTe
– The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

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Intrinsic Semi conduction in Terms of
Electron and Hole Migration
• Concept of electrons and holes:
valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- +- +

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
Adapted from Fig. 18.11,
• Electrical Conductivity given by: Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

# holes/m3
 n e  e  p e  h
hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
15
 Intrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity
vs Temperature
• Data for Pure Silicon:
-- s increases with T
-- opposite to metals
 ni e e  h 

 E gap / kT
ni  e


material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
 Ge
GaP
0.67
2.25
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 18.3,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Adapted from Fig. 18.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 16
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
• Intrinsic:
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # holes (n = p)
• Extrinsic:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- n ≠ p
• n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
 n e  e electron  p e h
4+ 5+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs. 18.12(a)

no applied Si atom no applied
& 18.14(a), Callister & electric field electric field
17
Rethwisch 8e.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity
vs. Temperature
• Data for Doped Silicon:
-- s increases doping doped

-- reason: imperfection sites undoped

lower the activation energy to 3

concentration (1021/m3)
produce mobile electrons.

Conduction electron

freeze-out
2

extrinsic

intrinsic
• Comparison: intrinsic vs
extrinsic conduction... 1
-- extrinsic doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P). 0
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out“, 0 200 400 600 T (K)
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons. Adapted from Fig. 18.17, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 18.17 from S.M. Sze, Semiconductor
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic" Devices, Physics, and Technology, Bell
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic" Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)

18
 Ferroelectric Ceramics
• Experience spontaneous polarization

BaTiO3 -- ferroelectric below

its Curie temperature (120ºC)

Fig. 18.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.
19
Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity
– application of stress induces voltage
– application of voltage induces dimensional change

stress-free with applied

stress
Adapted from Fig. 18.36, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.36 from Van Vlack, Lawrence H., Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering, 1989, p.482, Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.)
20
Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]
• Other electrical characteristics
-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity 21
Thank you

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