Semiconductor Physics and Devices Basic Principles Third Edition Donald A. Neamen University of New Mexico a Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, 1A Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogota Caracas KualaLumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Sanjiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei TorontoMcGraw-Hill Higher Education #2 A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND DEVICES: BASIC PRINCIPLES THIRD EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2003, 1997, 1992 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No patt of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United s This book is printed on aci International 1234567890 DOC/DOC 098765432 Domestic 234567890 DOCMOC09876543 ISBN 0-07-232107-5 ISBN 0-07-119862-8 (ISE) Publisher: Elizabeth A. Jones Senior developmental editor: Kelley Butcher Executive marketing manager: John Wannemacher Project manager: Jayce Watters Production supervisor: Sherry L. Kane Designer: David W. Hash Cover designer: Rokusek Design Cover image: ©Eyewire, Inc. Media project manager: Sandra M. Schnee Media technology senior producer: Phillip Meck Compositor: Interactive Composition Corporation ‘Typeface: 10/12 Times Roman Printer: R. R. Donnelley/Cravfordsville, IN Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, Neamen, Donald A. Semiconductor physics and devices : basic principles / Donald A. Neamen. — 3rd ed. poem. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-07-232107-5 (acid-free paper) 1. Semiconductors. 1. Title QC6II N39 2003 $37.622—de2I 2002019681 cP INTERNATIONAL EDITION ISBN 0-07-119862-8 Copyright © 2003. Exclusive rights by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is sold by McGraw-Hill ‘The International Edition is not available in North America. wwwembhe.comABOUT THE AUTHOR Donald A. Neamen is a professor emeritus in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of New Mexico where he taught for more than 25 years. He received his Ph.D. from the University of New Mexico and then became an electronics engineer at the Solid State Sciences Laboratory at Hanscom Air Force Base. In 1976, he joined the faculty in the EECE department at the University of New Mexico, where he specialized in teaching semiconductor physics and devices courses and electronic circuits courses. He is still a part-time instructor in the department. In 1980, Professor Neamen received the Outstanding Teacher Award for the University of New Mexico. In 1983 and 1985, he was recognized as Outstanding Teacher in the College of Engineering by Tau Beta Pi. In 1990, and each year from 1994 through 2001, he received the Faculty Recognition Award, presented by gradu- ating EECE students, He was also honored with the Teaching Excellence Award in the College of Engineering in 1994. In addition to his teaching, Professor Neamen served as Associate Chair of the EECE department for several years and has also worked in industry with Martin Marietta, Sandia National Laboratories, and Raytheon Company. He has published many papers and is the author of Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design, 2nd edition.CONTENTS IN BRIEF Preface xi Chapter! The Crystal Structure of Solids 1 Chapter 2 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 24 Chapter 3 Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Solids 56 Chapter 4 — The Semiconductor in Equilibrium 103 Chapter 5 — Carrier Transport Phenomena 154 Chapter 6 = — Nonequilibrium Ex: Carriers in Semiconductors 189 Chapter7 — The pn Junction 238 Chapter 8 The pn Junction Diode 268 Chapter 9 Metal-Semiconductor and Semiconductor Heterojunctions 326 Chapter 10 — The Bipolar Transistor 367 Chapter 11 Fundamentals of the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 449 Chapter 12 Metal~Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor: Additional Concepts 523 Chapter 13. The Junction Field-Effect Transistor 570 Chapter 14 Optical Devices 617 Chapter 15 Semiconductor Power Devices 668 Appendix A Selected List of Symbols 703 Appendix B System of Units, Conversion Factors, and General Constants 711 Appendix The Periodic Table 715 Appendix D The Error Function 717 Appendix E “Derivation” of Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 719 Appendix F Unit of Energy—The Electron-Volt. 721 Appendix G Answers to Selected Problems 723 Index 731CONTENTS Preface xi CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids 1 Preview 1 1.1 Semiconductor Materials 1 1.2 Types of Solids 2 1.3 Space Lattices 3 13.1 Primitive and Unit Cell 3 13.2 Basie Crystal Structures 4 13.3 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices 5 1.3.4 The Diamond Structure 9 14 Atomic Bonding 11 *1.5 Imperfections and Impurities in Solids 13 1.5.1 Imperfections in Solids 13 1.5.2 Impurities in Solids 15 *1.6 Growth of Semiconductor Materials 16 1.6.1 Growth froma Melt 16 1.6.2. Epitaxial Growth 18 1.7 Summary 19 Problems 21 CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 24 Preview 24 2.1. Principles of Quantum Mechanics 25 21.1 Energy Quanta 25 2.1.2 Wave-Particle Duality 26 2.1.3. The Uncertainty Principle 29 2.2, Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 30 2.2.1 The Wave Equation 30 2.2.2 Physical Meaning of the Wave Function 32 2.2.3 Boundary Conditions 32 2.3. Applications of Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 33 23.1 Electron in Free Space 33 23.2 The Infinite Potential Well 34 2.3.3 The Step Potential Function 38 2.3.4 The Potential Barrier 42 2.4 Extensions of the Wave Theory to Atoms 45 24.1 The One-Electron Atom 45 24.2. The Periodic Table 48 2.5 Summary 50 Problems 51 CHAPTER 3. Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Solids 56 Preview 56 3.1 Allowed and Forbidden Energy Bands 57 3.1.1 Formation of Energy Bands 57 ¥3.1.2 The Kronig—Penney Model 61 3.1.3 The k-Space Diagram 66 3.2 Electrical Conduction in Solids 70 3.2.) The Energy Band and the Bond Model 70 3.2.2 Drift Current 72 3.2.3. Electron Effective Mass 73 3.2.4 Concept of the Hole 76 3.2.5. Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors 78 3.3 Extension to Three Dimensions 80 3.3.1 The k-Space Diagrams of Si and GaAs 81 3.3.2. Additional Effective Mass Concepts 82 3.4 Density of States Function 83 3.4.1 Mathematical Derivation 83 3.4.2 Extension to Semiconductors 86 3.5. Statistical Mechanics 88 3.5.1 Statistical Laws 88vi Contents 3.5.2 The FermiDirac Probability Function 89 ow apTERS 3.5.3 The Distribution Function and the Carrier Transport Phenomena 154 Fermi Energy 91 3.6 Summary 96 Preview 154 Problems 98 5.1. Carrier Drift 154 SAL Drift Current Density 155 5.1.2 Mobility Effects 157 cnapTer4 5.3 Conductivity 162 The Semiconductor in Equi 103 5.1.4 Velocity Saturation 167 Preview 103 5.2. Cartier Diffusion 169 4.1 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 104 5.21 Diffusion Current Density 170 4.1.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons 9.2.2 Total Current Density 173 and Holes 104 5.3 Graded Impurity Distribution 173 4.1.2, The mand py Equations 106 5.3.1 Induced Electric Field 174 4.1.3 The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 110 5.3.2. The Einstein Relation 176 4.14 The Intrinsic Fermi-Level *5.4 The Hall Effect 177 Position 113 35 Summary 180 4.2 Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels 115 Problems 182 4.2.1 Qualitative Description 115 42.2 Ionization Energy 117 4.2.3, Group II-V Semiconductors 119 CHAPTER 6 4.3 The Extrinsic Semiconductor 120 Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers 4.3.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons in Semiconductors 189 and Holes 121 43.2 The nopy Product 124 *43.3 The FermiDirac Integral 125 4.3.4 Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors 127 Preview 189 6.1 Carrier Generation and Recombination 190 6.1.1 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium 190 6.1.2 Excess Carrier Generation and Recombination 191 44 Siatsticy of Donors and. Acceptor: 128 6.2 Characteristics of Excess Carriers 194 @hT Probability Function 128 6.2.1 Continuity Equations 195 4.4.2 Complete ionization and Freeze-Out 129 ee 4.5 Charge Neutrality 132 Equations 196 4.5.1 Compensated Semiconductors 133 63° Ambipolar Transport 197 4.5.2. Equilibrium Electron and Hole KR Peecdnanion of the Aaibipolan Concentrations 133 Transport Equation 198 4.6 Position of Fermi Energy Level 139 632. Limits of Extrinsic Doping 46.1 Mathematical Derivation 139 and Low Injection 200 4.6.2 Variation of E, with Doping Concentration 6.3.3 Applications of the Ambipolar and Temperature 142 Transport Equation 203 4.6.3. Relevance of the Fermi Energy 144 63.4 Dielectric Relaxation Time Constant 211 4.7 Summary 145 %6.3.5 Haynes-Shockley Experiment 213 Problems 148 6.4 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels 216¥*6.5 Excess-Carrier Lifetime 218 6.5.1 Shockley-Read-Hall Theory of Recombination 219 6.5.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection 222 Surface Effects 224 66.1 Surface States 224 6.6.2 Surface Recombination Velocity 226 Summary 229 Problems 231 76.6 6.7 CHAPTERT The pn Junction 238 Preview 238 7.1 Basic Structure of the pn Junction 238 71.2 Zero Applied Bias 240 7.2.1 Built-in Potential Barrier 240 7.2.2 Electric Field 242 7.2.3 Space Charge Width 246 7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 247 7.3.1 Space Charge Width and Electric Field 248 7.3.2. Junction Capacitance 251 7.3.3. One-Sided Junctions 253 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions 255 7.4.1 Linearly Graded Junction 255 258 a74 7.4.2. Hyperabrupt Junctions 75 Summary 260 Problems 262 CHAPTER 8 The pn Junction Diode 268 Preview 268 269 8.1.1 Qualitative Description of Charge Flow ina pn Junction 269 8.1 pn Junction Current B12 813 814 BLS 81.6 Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship 270 Boundary Conditions 271 Minority Carrier Distribution Ideal pn Junction Current 277 281 275 Summary of Physics 8.2 8.3 8.4 *8.5 *8.6 8.7 Contents vil 8.1.7 Temperature Effects 284 8.1.8 The “Short Diode 284 Small-Signal Model of the pn Junction 8.2.1 Diffusion Resistance 286 8.2.2 Small-Signal Admittance 295 Generation-Recombination Currents 286 288 8.2.3 Equivalent Circuit 297 297 8.3.2 Forward-Bias Recombination Current 83.3 Total Forward-Bias Current 303 Junction Breakdown 305 Charge Storage and Diode Transients 85.1 309 8.5.2. The Turn-on Transient 312 The Tunnel Diode 313 Summary 316 318 8.3.1 Reverse-Bias Generation Current 300 309 The Turn-off Transient Problems CHAPTERY Metal-Semiconductor and Semiconductor Heterojunctions 326 91 9.2 9.3 94 Preview 326 The Schottky Barrier Diode 326 9.1.1 Qualitative Characteristics 327 9.1.2 Ideal Junction Properties. 329 9.1.3 Nonideal Effects on the Barrier Height 914 337 9.1.5 Comparison of the Schottky Barrier Diode and the pn Junction Diode 341 Metal-Semiconductor Ohmic Contacts 9.2.1 345 9.2.2 9.2.3 Heterojunctions 333 Current-Voltage Relationship 344 Ideal Nonrectifying Barriers Tunneling Barrier 346 Specific Contact Resistance 348 349 Heterojunction Materials 350 Energy-Band Diagrams 350 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 351 354 Current-Voltage Characteristics Equilibrium Electrostatics 79.3.5 Summary 359 359 Problems 361vil Contents CHAPTER 10 ‘The Bipolar Transistor 367 Preview 367 10.1 The Bipolar Transistor Action 368 10.1.1 The Basic Principle of Operation 369 10.1.2 Simplified Transistor Current Relations 370 The Modes of Operation 374 Amplification with Bipolar Transistors 376 Minority Carrier Distribution 377 10.2.1 Forward-Active Mode 378 10.2.2. Other Modes of Operation 384 Low-Frequency Common-Base Current Gain 385 10.3.1 Contributing Factors 386 10.3.2 10.1.3 10.1.4 10.2 10.3 Mathematical Derivation of Current Gain Factors 388 10.3.3 Summary 392 103.4 Example Calculations of the Gain Factors 393 Nonideal Effects 397 10.4.1 Base Width Modulation 10.4.2 High Injection 401 104.3 Emitter Bandgap Narrowing 403 10.4.4 Current Crowding 405 +1045. Nonuniform Base Doping 406 104.6 Breakdown Voltage 408 Equivalent Circuit Models 413 “10.5.1 Ebers-Moll Model 414 10.5.2, Gummel-Poon Model 416 10.5.3. Hybrid-Pi Model 418 Frequency Limitations 422 10.6.1 Time-Delay Factors 422 10.6.2 Transistor Cutoff Frequency 424 Large-Signal Switching 427 10.7.1 Switching Characteristics 427 10.7.2. The Schottky-Clamped Transistor 429 Other Bipolar Transistor Structures 430 10.8.1 Polysilicon Emitter BIT 430 108.2 Silicon-Germanium Base Transistor 431 108.3 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 434 10.4 397 10,5 10.6 10.7 *10.8 *1LS 10.9 Summary 435 Problems 438 CHAPTER IL Fundamentals of the Metal-Oxide— Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 449 Preview 449 The Two-Terminal MOS Structure 450 1.1 Energy-Band Diagrams 450 1.1.2. Depletion Layer Thickness 455 1.1.3 Work Function Differences 458 1.1.4 Flat-Band Voltage 462 11.1.5 Threshold Voltage 465 1.1.6 Charge Distribution 471 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics 474 L Ideal C-V Characteristics 474 11.2.2 Frequency Effects 479 11.2.3 Fixed Oxide and Interface Charge Effects 480 ‘The Basic MOSFET Operation 11.3.1 MOSFET Structures 483 11.3.2 Current-Voltage Relationship— Concepts 486 Current-Voltage Relationship— Mathematical Derivation 490 11.3.4 Transconductance 498 11.3.5 Substrate Bias Effects 499 Frequency Limitations 502 11.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 502 11.4.2. Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency 504 The CMOS Technology 507 Summary 509 Problems 513 Wd 11.2 113 483 FBS 4 11.6 CHAPTER 12 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor: Additional Concepts 523 Preview 523 12.1 Nonideal Effects 524 12.1.1 Subthreshold Conduction 52412.2 12.3 12.4 #125 12.6 12.1.2 12.13 114 12.1.5 Ballistic Transport MOSFET Scaling 534 12.2.1 Constant-Field Scaling 534 12.2.2 Threshold Voltage—First Approximations 535 12.2.3 Generalized Scaling 536 Threshold Voltage Modifications 12.3.1 Short-Channel Effects 537 123.2, Narrow-Channel Effects 54] Additional Electrical Characteristics 543 12.4.1 Breakdown Voltage 544 *12.4.2 The Lightly Doped Drain Transistor 550 12.4.3 Threshold Adjustment by fon Implantation 551 Radiation and Hot-Electron Effects 554 12.5.1 Radiation-Induced Oxide Charge 555 12.5.2. Radiation-Induced Interface States 558 12.5.3 Hot-Electron Charging Effects 560 Summary 561 Problems 563 Channel Length Modulation Mobility Variation 530 532 534 526 Velocity Saturation 537 CHAPTER 13 The Junction Field-Effect Transistor 570 13.1 13.2 #133 Preview 570 JFET Concepts 571 13.1.1 Basic pn JFET Operation 571 13.1.2 Basic MESFET Operation 575 The Device Characteristics 577 13.2.1 Internal Pinchoff Voltage, Pinchoff Voltage, and Drain-to-Source Saturation Voltage 577 Ideal DC Current-Voltage Relationship— Depletion Mode JFET 582 13.2.3 Transconductance 587 13.2.4 The MESFET 588 Nonideal Effects 593 13.3.1 Channel Length Modulation 13.2.2 594 *13.4 #135 13.6 Contents 13.3.2. Velocity Saturation Effects. 596 13.3.3 Subthreshold and Gate Current Effects 596 Equivalent Circuit and Frequency Limitations 598 13.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 2. 598 .2 Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency 600 High Electron Mobility Transistor 13.5.1 Quantum Well Structures 603 13.5.2 Transistor Performance 604 Summary 609 Problems 611 602 CHAPTER 14 Optical Devices 617 141 14.2 14.4 Preview 617 Optical Absorption 618 14.1.1 Photon Absorption Coefficient 14.1.2 Electron-Hole Pair Generation Rate 621 Solar Cells 623 14.2.1 The pn Junction Solar Cell 623 14.2.2. Conversion Efficiency and Solar Concentration 626 618 14.2.3 14.2.4 14.2.5 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells Photodetectors 631 14.3.1 Photoconductor 632 14.3.2 Photodiode 634 14.3.3 PIN Photodiode 639 14.3.4 Avalanche Photodiode 143.5. Phototransistor 641 Nonuniform Absorption Effects 628 The Heterojunction Solar Cell 628 630 640 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence 642 144.1 Basic Transitions 643 14.4.2. Luminescent Efficiency 14.4.3° Materials 645 Light Emitting Diodes 14.5.1 645 647 Generation of Light 648PREFACE PHILOSOPHY AND GOALS ‘The puspose of the third edition of this book is to provide a basis for understanding the characteristics, operation, and limitations of semiconductor devices. In order to gain this understanding, it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of the physics of the semiconductor material. The goal of this book is to bring together quantum me- chanics, the quantum theory of solids, semiconductor material physics, and semicon- ductor device physics. All of these components are vital to the understanding of both the operation of present day devices and any future development in the field. ‘The amount of physics presented in this text is greater than what is covered in many introductory semiconductor device books. Although this coverage is more ex- tensive, the author has found that once the basic introductory and material physics have been thoroughly covered. the physics of the semiconductor device follows quite naturally and can be covered fairly quickly and efficiently. The emphasis on the un- derlying physics will also be a benefit in understanding and perhaps in developing new semiconductor devices. Since the objective of this text is to provide an introduction to the theory of semiconductor devices, there is a great deal of advanced theory that is not consid- ered, In addition, fabrication processes are not described in detail. There are a few references and general discussions about processing techniques such as diffusion and ion implantation, but only where the results of this processing have direct im- pact on device characteristics. PREREQUISITES ‘This book is intended for junior and senior undergraduates, The prerequisites for un- derstanding the material are college mathematics. up to and including differential equations, and college physics, including an introduction to modern physics and electrostatics. Prior completion of an introductory course in electronic circuits is helpful, but not essential. ORGANIZATION The text begins with the introductory physics, moves on to the semiconductor mate- rial physics, and then covers the physics of semiconductor devices. Chapter 1 presents an introduction to the crystal structure of solids, leading to the ideal single-crystal semiconductor material. Chapters 2 and 3 introduce quantum mechanics and the quantum theory of solids, which together provide the necessary basic physics. Chapters 4 through 6 cover the semiconductor material physics. Chapter 4 presents the physics of the semiconductor in thermal equilibrium; Chapter 5 treats the transportPreface phenomena of the charge carriers in a semiconductor, The nonequilibrium excess car rier characteristics are then developed in Chapter 6. Understanding the behavior of ex- cess carriers in a semiconductor is vital to the goal of understanding the device physics. The physics of the basic semiconductor devices is developed in Chapters 7 through 13. Chapter 7 treats the electrostatics of the basic pn junction. and Chapter 8 covers the current-voltage characteristics of the pn junction, Metal-semiconductor junctions, both rectifying and nonrectifying, and semiconductor heterojunctions are considered in Chapter 9, while Chapter 10 treats the bipolar transistor. The physies of the metal- oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor is presented in Chapters 1] and 12. and Chapter 13 covers the junction field-effect transistor. Once the physics of the pn junc- tion is developed, the chapters dealing with the three basic transistors may be covered in any order—these chapters are written so as not to depend on one another. Chapter 14 considers optical devices and finally Chapter 15 covers power semiconductor devices. USE OF THE BOOK The text is intended for a one-semester course at the junior or senior level. As with most textbooks, there is more material than can be conveniently covered in one semester; this allows each instructor some flexibility in designing the course to his/her own specific needs. Two possible orders of presentation are discussed later in a sepa- Tate section in this preface, However, the text is not an encyclopedia. Sections in each chapter that can be skipped without loss of continuity are identified by an asterisk in both the table of contents and in the chapter itself. These sections, although important to the development of semiconductor device physics, can be postponed to a later time. ‘The material in the text has been used extensively in a course that is required for junior-level electrical engineering students at the University of New Mexico. Slightly less than half of the semester is devoted to the first six chapters; the remain- der of the semester is devoted to the pn junction, the bipolar transistor, and the metal- oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor. A few other special topics may be briefly considered near the end of the semester. Although the bipolar transistor is discussed in Chapter 10 before the MOSFET or JFET, each chapter dealing with one of the three basic types of transistors is written to stand alone. Any one of the transistor types may be covered first. NOTES TO THE READER This book introduces the physics of semiconductor materials and devices. Although many electrical engineering students are more comfortable building electronic cir- cuits or writing computer programs than studying the underlying principles of semi- conductor devices, the material presented here is vital to an understanding of the limitations of electronic devices, such as the microprocessor. Mathematics is used extensively throughout the book. This may at times seem tedious, but the end result is an understanding that will not otherwise occur. Although some of the mathematical models used to describe physical processes may seem abstract, they have withstood the test of time in their ability to describe and predict these physical processes.Preface The reader is encouraged to continually refer to the preview sections so that the ob- jective of the chapter and the purposes of each topic can be kept in mind. This constant review is especially important in the first five chapters, dealing with basic physics. ‘The reader must keep in mind that, although some sections may be skipped without loss of continuity, many instructors will choose to cover these topics. The fact that sec- tions are marked with an asterisk does not minimize the importance of these subjects. Itis also important that the reader keep in mind that there may be questions still unanswered at the end of a course. Although the author dislikes the phrase, “it can be shown that...,” there are some concepts used here that rely on derivations beyond the scope of the text. This book is intended as an introduction to the subject. Those questions remaining unanswered at the end of the course, the reader is encouraged to keep “in a desk drawer.” Then, during the next course in this area of concentration, the reader can take out these questions and search for the answers. ORDER OF PRESENTATION Each instructor has a personal preference for the order in which the course material is presented, Listed below are two possible scenarios. The first case, called the clas- sical approach, covers the bipolar transistor before the MOS transistor. However, because the MOS transistor topic is left until the end of the semester, time constraints may shortchange the amount of class time devoted to this important topic. The second method of presentation listed, called the nonclassical approach, dis- cusses the MOS transistor before the bipolar transistor. Two advantages to this ap- proach are that the MOS transistor will not get shortchanged in terms of time devoted to the topic and, since a “real device” is discussed earlier in the semester, the reader may have more motivation to continue studying this course material. A possible disadvantage to this approach is that the reader may be somewhat intimidated by jumping from Chapter 7 to Chapter 11. However, the material in Chapters 11 and 12 is written so that this jump can be made, Unfortunately, because of time constraints, every topic in every chapter cannot be covered in a one-semester course. The remaining topics must be left for a second- semester course or for further study by the reader. Classical approach Chapter 1 Crystal structure Chapters 2, 3 Selected wpies from quantum mechanies and theory of solids Chapter 4 Semiconductor physics Chapter 5 ‘Transport phenomena Chapter 6 Selected topics from nonequilibrium characteristics Chapters 7, 8 The pn junction and diode Chapter 9 brief discussion of the Schottky diode Chapter 10 ‘The bipolar transistor Chapters 11, 12 The MOS trans or aditxiv Preface Nonclassical approach Chapter I Crystal structure Chapters 2, 3 Selected topies from quantum mechanics and theory of solids Chapter 4 Semiconductor physics Chapter 5 ‘Transport phenomena Chapter 7 The pn junetion Chapters 11, 12 The MOS transistor Chapter 6 Selected topics from nonequilibrium characteristics Chapter 8 The pn junction diode Chapter 9 scussion of the Schottky diode Chapter 10 The bipolar transistor FEATURES OF THE THIRD EDITION Preview section: A preview section introduces each chapter. This preview links the chapter to previous chapters and states the chapter's goals, ie., what the reader should gain from the chapter. HM Examples: An extensive number of worked cxamples are used throughout the text to reinforce the theoretical concepts being developed. These examples contain all the details of the analysis or design, so the reader does not have to fill in missing steps. W Qest your understanding: Exercise or drill problems are included throughout each chapter. These problems are generally placed immediately after an example problem, rather than at the end of a long section, so that readers can immediately test their understanding of the material just covered. Answers are given for each drill problem so readers do not have to search for an answer at the end of the book. These exercise problems will reinforce readers’ grasp of the material before they move on to the next section. BM Summary section: A summary section, in bullet form, follows the text of each chapter. This section summarizes the overall results derived in the chapter and reviews the basic concepts developed. Glossary of important terms: A glossary of important terms follows the Summary section of each chapter. This section defines and summarizes the most important terms discussed in the chapter. > Checkpoint: A checkpoint section follows the Glossary section. This section states the goals that should have been met and states the abilities the reader should have gained. The Checkpoints will help assess progress before moving on to the next chapter. Review questions: A list of review questions is included at the end of each chapter. These questions serve as a self-test to help the reader determine how well the concepts developed in the chapter have been mastered. M End-of-chapter problems: A large number of problems are given at the end of each chapter, organized according to the subject of each section in the chapterPreface body. A larger number of problems have been included than in the second edition. Design-oriented or open-ended problems are included at the end in a Summary and Review section, Computer simulation: Computer simulation problems are included in many end-of-chapter problems. Computer simulation has not been directly incorporated into the text. However, a website has been established that considers computer simulation using MATLAB. This website contains computer simulations of material considered in most chapters. These computer simulations enhance the theoretical material presented. There aiso are exercise or drill problems that a reader may consider, > Reading list: A reading list finishes up each chapter. The references, that are at an advanced level compared with that of this text, are indicated by an asterisk. Answers to selected problems: Answers to selected problems are given in the Jast appendix. Knowing the answer to a problem is an aid and a reinforcement in problem solving. ICONS Computer Simulations a Design Problems and Examples SUPPLEMENTS This book is supported by the following supplements: @ Solutions Manual available to instructors in paper form and on the website. Power Point slides of important figures are available on the website. B Computer simulations are available on the website. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Tam indebted to the many students I have had over the years who have helped in the evo- lution of the third edition as well as the first and second editions of this text, | am grate- ful for their enthusiasm and constructive criticism, The University of New Mexico has my appreciation for providing an atmosphere conducive to writing this book. L want to thank the many people at McGraw-Hill, for their tremendous support. A special thanks to Kelley Butcher, senior developmental editor. Her attention to de- tails and her enthusiasm throughout the project are especially recognized and appre- ciated. [also appreciate the efforts of Joyce Watters, project manager, who guided the work through its final phase toward publication.xvi Preface The following reviewers deserve thanks for their constructive criticism and sug- gestions for the third edition of this text. Thomas Mantei, University of Cincinnati Cheng Hsiao Wu, University of Missouri—Rolla Kazutoshi Najita, University of Hawaii at Manoa John Naber, University of Louisville Gerald Oleszek, University of Colorado-—Colorado Springs Marc Cahay, University of Cincinnati The following reviewers deserve thanks for their constructive criticism and sug- gestions for the second edition: Jon M. Meese, University of Missouri—Columbia Jacob 8. Khurgin, Johns Hopkins University Hong Koo Kim, University of Pittsburgh Gerald M. Oleszek, University of Colorado—Colorado Springs Ronald J. Roedel, Arizona State University Leon McCaughan, University of Wisconsin A, Anil Kumar, Prairie View A & M University Since the third edition is an outgrowth of the first edition of the text, the follow- ing reviewers of the first edition deserve my continued thanks for their thorough reviews and valuable suggestions: Timothy J. Drummond, Sandia Laboratories J. L. Davidson, Vanderbilt University Robert Jackson, University of Massachusetts—Amherst C.H. Wu, University of Missouri—Rolla D, K. Reinhard, Michigan State University Len Trombetta, University of Houston Dan Moore, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Bruce P. Johnson, University of Nevada—Reno William Wilson, Rice University ry of Minnesota G. E. Stillman, University of Minois—Urbana-Champaign Richard C. Jaeger, Auburn University Anand Kulkarni, Michigan Technological University Ronald D. Schrimpf, University of Arizona Dennis Polla, Univers J appreciate the many fine and thorough reviews—your suggestions have made this a better book. Donald A. NeamenPROLOGUE ESL atn nn pe ee a Semiconductors and the Integrated Circuit PREVIEW ¢ often hear that we are living in the information age. Large amounts of information can be obtained via the Internet, for example, and can also be V V obtained quickly over long distances via satellite communication sys- tems. The development of the transistor and the integrated circuit (IC) has lead to these remarkable capabilities. The IC permeates almost every facet of our daily lives, including such things as the compact disk player, the fax machine, laser scanners at the grocery store, and the cellular telephone, One of the most dramatic examples of IC technology is the digital computer—a relatively small laptop computer today has more computing capability than the equipment used to send a man to the moon a few years ago. The semiconductor electronics field continues to be a fast-changing one, with thousands of technical papers published each year. Hi HISTORY ‘The semiconductor device has a fairly long history, although the greatest explosion of IC technology has occured during the last two or three decades.’ The metal— semiconductor contact dates back to the early work of Braun in 1874, who discov- ered the asymmetric nature of electrical conduction between metal contacts and semiconductors, such as copper, iron, and lead sulfide. These devices were used as ‘This brief introduction is intended to give a flavor of the history of the semiconductor device and. integrated circuit. Thousands of engineers and scientists have made significant contributions to the development of semiconductor electronies—the few events and names mentioned here are mot meant to imply thas these are the only significamt events or people involved in the semiconductor history. xviiPrologue detectors in early experiments on radio. In 1906, Pickard took out a patent for a point contact detector using silicon and, in 1907, Pierce published rectification character- istics of diodes made by sputiering metals onto a variety of semiconductors. By 1935, selenium rectifiers and silicon point contact diodes were available for use as radio detectors. With the development of radar, the need for detector diodes and mixers increased, Methods of achieving high-purity silicon and germanium were developed during this time. A significant advance in our understanding of the metal~ semiconductor contact was aided by developments in the semiconductor physics. Perhaps most important during this period was Bethe’s thermionic-emission theory in 1942, according to which the current is determined by the process of emission of electrons into the metal rather than by drift or diffusion. Another big breakthrough came in December 1947 when the first transistor was constructed and tested at Bell Telephone Laboratories by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. This first transistor was a point contact device and used polycrystalline germanium. The transistor effect was soon demonstrated in silicon as well. A significant improvement occurred at the end of 1949 when single-crystal material was used rather than the polycrystalline material. The single crystal yields uniform and improved properties throughout the whole semiconductor material. The next significant step in the development of the transistor was the use of the diffusion process to form the necessary junctions. This process allowed better control of the transistor characteristics and yielded higher-frequency devices. The diffused mesa transistor was commercially available in germanium in 1957 and in silicon in 1958. The diffusion process also allowed many transistors to be fabricated on a sin- gle silicon slice. so the cost of these devices decreased. THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC) Up to this point, each component in an electronic circuit had to be individually con- nected by wires. In September 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments demonstrated the first integrated circuit, which was fabricated in germanium. At about the same time, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor introduced the integrated circuit in icon using a planar technology. The first circuit used bipolar transistors. Practical MOS transistors were then developed in the mid-’60s. The MOS technologies, espe- cially CMOS, have become a major focus for IC design and development. Silicon is the main semiconductor material. Gallium arsenide and other compound semicon- ductors are used for special applications requiring very high frequency devices and for optical devices. Since that first IC, circuit design has become more sophisticated, and the inte- grated circuit more complex. A single silicon chip may be on the order of 1 square centimeter and contain over a million transistors. Some ICs may have more than a hundred terminalis, while an individual transistor has only three. An IC can contain the arithmetic, logic, and memory functions on a single semiconductor chip—the primary example of this type of IC is the microprocessor. Intense research on silicon processing and increased automation in design and manufacturing have led to lower costs and higher fabrication yields. xix