Semiconductor Physics and Devices

Basic Principles

Fourth Edition

Donald A. Neamen
University of New Mexico

TM

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 TM

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS & DEVICES: BASIC PRINCIPLES, FOURTH EDITION

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Neamen, Donald A.
Semiconductor physics and devices : basic principles / Donald A. Neamen.
— 4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-352958-5 (alk. paper)
1. Semiconductors. I. Title.
QC611.N39 2011
537.6'22—dc22
2010045765

www.mhhe.com

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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Donald A. Neamen is a professor emeritus in the Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering at the University of New Mexico where he taught for more
than 25 years. He received his Ph.D. from the University of New Mexico and then
became an electronics engineer at the Solid State Sciences Laboratory at Hanscom Air
Force Base. In 1976, he joined the faculty in the ECE department at the University of
New Mexico, where he specialized in teaching semiconductor physics and devices
courses and electronic circuits courses. He is still a part-time instructor in the depart-
ment. He also recently taught for a semester at the University of Michigan-Shanghai
Jiao Tong University (UM-SJTU) Joint Institute in Shanghai, China.
In 1980, Professor Neamen received the Outstanding Teacher Award for the
University of New Mexico. In 1983 and 1985, he was recognized as Outstanding
Teacher in the College of Engineering by Tau Beta Pi. In 1990, and each year from
1994 through 2001, he received the Faculty Recognition Award, presented by gradu-
ating ECE students. He was also honored with the Teaching Excellence Award in the
College of Engineering in 1994.
In addition to his teaching, Professor Neamen served as Associate Chair of the
ECE department for several years and has also worked in industry with Martin
Marietta, Sandia National Laboratories, and Raytheon Company. He has published
many papers and is the author of Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th
edition, and An Introduction to Semiconductor Devices.

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 CONTENTS

Preface x 2.2 Schrodinger’s Wave Equation 31

Prologue—Semiconductors and the Integrated 2.2.1 The Wave Equation 31
Circuit xvii 2.2.2 Physical Meaning of the Wave Function 32
2.2.3 Boundary Conditions 33
PART I—Semiconductor Material Properties 2.3 Applications of Schrodinger’s Wave
CHAPTER 1 Equation 34
The Crystal Structure of Solids 1 2.3.1 Electron in Free Space 35
2.3.2 The Infinite Potential Well 36
1.0 Preview 1 2.3.3 The Step Potential Function 39
1.1 Semiconductor Materials 1 2.3.4 The Potential Barrier and Tunneling 44
1.2 Types of Solids 2 2.4 Extensions of the Wave Theory
1.3 Space Lattices 3 to Atoms 46
1.3.1 Primitive and Unit Cell 3 2.4.1 The One-Electron Atom 46
1.3.2 Basic Crystal Structures 4 2.4.2 The Periodic Table 50
1.3.3 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices 6 2.5 Summary 51
1.3.4 Directions in Crystals 9 Problems 52
1.4 The Diamond Structure 10
1.5 Atomic Bonding 12
CHAPTER 3
*1.6 Imperfections and Impurities in Solids 14
Introduction to the Quantum Theory
1.6.1 Imperfections in Solids 14
of Solids 58
1.6.2 Impurities in Solids 16
*1.7 Growth of Semiconductor Materials 17 3.0 Preview 58
1.7.1 Growth from a Melt 17 3.1 Allowed and Forbidden Energy Bands 59
1.7.2 Epitaxial Growth 19 3.1.1 Formation of Energy Bands 59
1.8 Summary 20 *3.1.2 The Kronig–Penney Model 63
Problems 21 3.1.3 The k-Space Diagram 67
3.2 Electrical Conduction in Solids 72
3.2.1 The Energy Band and the Bond Model 72
CHAPTER 2 3.2.2 Drift Current 74
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 25 3.2.3 Electron Effective Mass 75
2.0 Preview 25 3.2.4 Concept of the Hole 78
2.1 Principles of Quantum Mechanics 26 3.2.5 Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors 80
2.1.1 Energy Quanta 26 3.3 Extension to Three Dimensions 83
2.1.2 Wave–Particle Duality 27 3.3.1 The k-Space Diagrams of Si and GaAs 83
2.1.3 The Uncertainty Principle 30 3.3.2 Additional Effective Mass Concepts 85

iv

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 Contents v

3.4 Density of States Function 85 4.7 Summary 147

3.4.1 Mathematical Derivation 85 Problems 149
3.4.2 Extension to Semiconductors 88
3.5 Statistical Mechanics 91 CHAPTER 5
3.5.1 Statistical Laws 91 Carrier Transport Phenomena 156
3.5.2 The Fermi–Dirac Probability Function 91
3.5.3 The Distribution Function and the Fermi 5.0 Preview 156
Energy 93 5.1 Carrier Drift 157
3.6 Summary 98 5.1.1 Drift Current Density 157
Problems 100 5.1.2 Mobility Effects 159
5.1.3 Conductivity 164
CHAPTER 4 5.1.4 Velocity Saturation 169
The Semiconductor in Equilibrium 106 5.2 Carrier Diffusion 172
5.2.1 Diffusion Current Density 172
4.0 Preview 106
5.2.2 Total Current Density 175
4.1 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 107
5.3 Graded Impurity Distribution 176
4.1.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons
and Holes 107 5.3.1 Induced Electric Field 176
4.1.2 The n0 and p0 Equations 109 5.3.2 The Einstein Relation 178
4.1.3 The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 113 *5.4 The Hall Effect 180
4.1.4 The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position 116 5.5 Summary 183
4.2 Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels 118 Problems 184
4.2.1 Qualitative Description 118
4.2.2 Ionization Energy 120 CHAPTER 6
4.2.3 Group III–V Semiconductors 122 Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers
4.3 The Extrinsic Semiconductor 123 in Semiconductors 192
4.3.1 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons
and Holes 123 6.0 Preview 192
4.3.2 The n0 p0 Product 127 6.1 Carrier Generation and Recombination 193
*4.3.3 The Fermi–Dirac Integral 128 6.1.1 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium 193
4.3.4 Degenerate and Nondegenerate 6.1.2 Excess Carrier Generation and
Semiconductors 130 Recombination 194
4.4 Statistics of Donors and Acceptors 131 6.2 Characteristics of Excess Carriers 198
4.4.1 Probability Function 131 6.2.1 Continuity Equations 198
4.4.2 Complete Ionization and Freeze-Out 132 6.2.2 Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations 199
4.5 Charge Neutrality 135 6.3 Ambipolar Transport 201
4.5.1 Compensated Semiconductors 135 6.3.1 Derivation of the Ambipolar Transport
4.5.2 Equilibrium Electron and Hole Equation 201
Concentrations 136 6.3.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low
4.6 Position of Fermi Energy Level 141 Injection 203
4.6.1 Mathematical Derivation 142 6.3.3 Applications of the Ambipolar Transport
4.6.2 Variation of EF with Doping Concentration Equation 206
and Temperature 144 6.3.4 Dielectric Relaxation Time Constant 214
4.6.3 Relevance of the Fermi Energy 145 *6.3.5 Haynes–Shockley Experiment 216

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6.4 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels 219 8.1.4 Minority Carrier Distribution 283
*6.5 Excess Carrier Lifetime 221 8.1.5 Ideal pn Junction Current 286
6.5.1 Shockley–Read–Hall Theory of 8.1.6 Summary of Physics 290
Recombination 221 8.1.7 Temperature Effects 292
6.5.2 Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low 8.1.8 The “Short” Diode 293
Injection 225 8.2 Generation–Recombination Currents and
*6.6 Surface Effects 227 High-Injection Levels 295
6.6.1 Surface States 227 8.2.1 Generation–Recombination Currents 296
6.6.2 Surface Recombination Velocity 229 8.2.2 High-Level Injection 302
6.7 Summary 231 8.3 Small-Signal Model of the pn Junction 304
Problems 233 8.3.1 Diffusion Resistance 305
8.3.2 Small-Signal Admittance 306
PART II—Fundamental Semiconductor Devices 8.3.3 Equivalent Circuit 313

CHAPTER 7 *8.4 Charge Storage and Diode Transients 314

8.4.1 The Turn-off Transient 315
The pn Junction 241
8.4.2 The Turn-on Transient 317
7.0 Preview 241 *8.5 The Tunnel Diode 318
7.1 Basic Structure of the pn Junction 242 8.6 Summary 321
7.2 Zero Applied Bias 243 Problems 323
7.2.1 Built-in Potential Barrier 243
7.2.2 Electric Field 246
7.2.3 Space Charge Width 249
CHAPTER 9
Metal–Semiconductor and Semiconductor
7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 251
Heterojunctions 331
7.3.1 Space Charge Width and Electric Field 251
7.3.2 Junction Capacitance 254 9.0 Preview 331
7.3.3 One-Sided Junctions 256 9.1 The Schottky Barrier Diode 332
7.4 Junction Breakdown 258 9.1.1 Qualitative Characteristics 332
*7.5 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions 262 9.1.2 Ideal Junction Properties 334
7.5.1 Linearly Graded Junctions 263 9.1.3 Nonideal Effects on the Barrier Height 338
7.5.2 Hyperabrupt Junctions 265 9.1.4 Current–Voltage Relationship 342
7.6 Summary 267 9.1.5 Comparison of the Schottky Barrier Diode
and the pn Junction Diode 345
Problems 269
9.2 Metal–Semiconductor Ohmic Contacts 349
9.2.1 Ideal Nonrectifying Barrier 349
CHAPTER 8 9.2.2 Tunneling Barrier 351
The pn Junction Diode 276 9.2.3 Specific Contact Resistance 352
8.0 Preview 276 9.3 Heterojunctions 354
8.1 pn Junction Current 277 9.3.1 Heterojunction Materials 354
8.1.1 Qualitative Description of Charge Flow 9.3.2 Energy-Band Diagrams 354
in a pn Junction 277 9.3.3 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 356
8.1.2 Ideal Current–Voltage Relationship 278 *9.3.4 Equilibrium Electrostatics 358
8.1.3 Boundary Conditions 279 *9.3.5 Current–Voltage Characteristics 363

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 Contents vii

9.4 Summary 363 11.1.2 Channel Length Modulation 446

Problems 365 11.1.3 Mobility Variation 450
11.1.4 Velocity Saturation 452
CHAPTER 10 11.1.5 Ballistic Transport 453
Fundamentals of the Metal–Oxide– 11.2 MOSFET Scaling 455
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 371 11.2.1 Constant-Field Scaling 455
11.2.2 Threshold Voltage—First
10.0 Preview 371 Approximation 456
10.1 The Two-Terminal MOS Structure 372 11.2.3 Generalized Scaling 457
10.1.1 Energy-Band Diagrams 372 11.3 Threshold Voltage Modifications 457
10.1.2 Depletion Layer Thickness 376 11.3.1 Short-Channel Effects 457
10.1.3 Surface Charge Density 380 11.3.2 Narrow-Channel Effects 461
10.1.4 Work Function Differences 382
11.4 Additional Electrical Characteristics 464
10.1.5 Flat-Band Voltage 385
11.4.1 Breakdown Voltage 464
10.1.6 Threshold Voltage 388
*11.4.2 The Lightly Doped Drain Transistor 470
10.2 Capacitance–Voltage Characteristics 394 11.4.3 Threshold Adjustment by Ion
10.2.1 Ideal C–V Characteristics 394 Implantation 472
10.2.2 Frequency Effects 399 *11.5 Radiation and Hot-Electron Effects 475
10.2.3 Fixed Oxide and Interface Charge 11.5.1 Radiation-Induced Oxide Charge 475
Effects 400
11.5.2 Radiation-Induced Interface States 478
10.3 The Basic MOSFET Operation 403 11.5.3 Hot-Electron Charging Effects 480
10.3.1 MOSFET Structures 403 11.6 Summary 481
10.3.2 Current–Voltage
Problems 483
Relationship—Concepts 404
*10.3.3 Current–Voltage Relationship—
Mathematical Derivation 410 CHAPTER 12
10.3.4 Transconductance 418 The Bipolar Transistor 491
10.3.5 Substrate Bias Effects 419 12.0 Preview 491
10.4 Frequency Limitations 422 12.1 The Bipolar Transistor Action 492
10.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 422 12.1.1 The Basic Principle of Operation 493
10.4.2 Frequency Limitation Factors and 12.1.2 Simplified Transistor Current Relation—
Cutoff Frequency 425 Qualitative Discussion 495
*10.5 The CMOS Technology 427 12.1.3 The Modes of Operation 498
10.6 Summary 430 12.1.4 Amplification with Bipolar Transistors 500
Problems 433 12.2 Minority Carrier Distribution 501
12.2.1 Forward-Active Mode 502
CHAPTER 11 12.2.2 Other Modes of Operation 508
Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect 12.3 Transistor Currents and Low-Frequency
Transistor: Additional Concepts 443 Common-Base Current Gain 509
12.3.1 Current Gain—Contributing Factors 509
11.0 Preview 443
12.3.2 Derivation of Transistor Current
11.1 Nonideal Effects 444 Components and Current Gain
11.1.1 Subthreshold Conduction 444 Factors 512

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 viii Contents

12.3.3 Summary 517 *13.3 Nonideal Effects 593

12.3.4 Example Calculations of the Gain 13.3.1 Channel Length Modulation 594
Factors 517 13.3.2 Velocity Saturation Effects 596
12.4 Nonideal Effects 522 13.3.3 Subthreshold and Gate Current
12.4.1 Base Width Modulation 522 Effects 596
12.4.2 High Injection 524 *13.4 Equivalent Circuit and Frequency
12.4.3 Emitter Bandgap Narrowing 526 Limitations 598
12.4.4 Current Crowding 528 13.4.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 598
*12.4.5 Nonuniform Base Doping 530 13.4.2 Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff
12.4.6 Breakdown Voltage 531 Frequency 600
12.5 Equivalent Circuit Models 536 *13.5 High Electron Mobility Transistor 602
*12.5.1 Ebers–Moll Model 537 13.5.1 Quantum Well Structures 603
12.5.2 Gummel–Poon Model 540 13.5.2 Transistor Performance 604
12.5.3 Hybrid-Pi Model 541 13.6 Summary 609
12.6 Frequency Limitations 545 Problems 611
12.6.1 Time-Delay Factors 545
12.6.2 Transistor Cutoff Frequency 546 PART III—Specialized Semiconductor Devices
12.7 Large-Signal Switching 549 CHAPTER 14
12.7.1 Switching Characteristics 549
Optical Devices 618
12.7.2 The Schottky-Clamped Transistor 551
*12.8 Other Bipolar Transistor Structures 552 14.0 Preview 618
12.8.1 Polysilicon Emitter BJT 552 14.1 Optical Absorption 619
12.8.2 Silicon–Germanium Base Transistor 554 14.1.1 Photon Absorption Coefficient 619
12.8.3 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 556 14.1.2 Electron–Hole Pair Generation Rate 622
12.9 Summary 558 14.2 Solar Cells 624
Problems 560 14.2.1 The pn Junction Solar Cell 624
14.2.2 Conversion Efficiency and Solar
Concentration 627
CHAPTER 13 14.2.3 Nonuniform Absorption Effects 628
The Junction Field-Effect Transistor 571 14.2.4 The Heterojunction Solar Cell 629
13.0 Preview 571 14.2.5 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells 630
13.1 JFET Concepts 572 14.3 Photodetectors 633
13.1.1 Basic pn JFET Operation 572 14.3.1 Photoconductor 633
13.1.2 Basic MESFET Operation 576 14.3.2 Photodiode 635
13.2 The Device Characteristics 578 14.3.3 PIN Photodiode 640
13.2.1 Internal Pinchoff Voltage, Pinchoff 14.3.4 Avalanche Photodiode 641
Voltage, and Drain-to-Source Saturation 14.3.5 Phototransistor 642
Voltage 578 14.4 Photoluminescence and
13.2.2 Ideal DC Current–Voltage Relationship— Electroluminescence 643
Depletion Mode JFET 582 14.4.1 Basic Transitions 644
13.2.3 Transconductance 587 14.4.2 Luminescent Efficiency 645
13.2.4 The MESFET 588 14.4.3 Materials 646

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 Contents ix

14.5 Light Emitting Diodes 648 15.6.3 SCR Turn-Off 697

14.5.1 Generation of Light 648 15.6.4 Device Structures 697
14.5.2 Internal Quantum Efficiency 649 15.7 Summary 701
14.5.3 External Quantum Efficiency 650 Problems 703
14.5.4 LED Devices 652
14.6 Laser Diodes 654 APPENDIX A
14.6.1 Stimulated Emission and Population Selected List of Symbols 707
Inversion 655
14.6.2 Optical Cavity 657
14.6.3 Threshold Current 658 APPENDIX B
14.6.4 Device Structures and System of Units, Conversion Factors, and
Characteristics 660 General Constants 715
14.7 Summary 661
Problems 664 APPENDIX C
The Periodic Table 719
CHAPTER 15
Semiconductor Microwave and Power APPENDIX D
Devices 670 Unit of Energy—The Electron Volt 720
15.0 Preview 670
15.1 Tunnel Diode 671 APPENDIX E
15.2 Gunn Diode 672 “Derivation” of Schrodinger’s Wave
15.3 Impatt Diode 675 Equation 722
15.4 Power Bipolar Transistors 677
15.4.1 Vertical Power Transistor APPENDIX F
Structure 677 Effective Mass Concepts 724
15.4.2 Power Transistor Characteristics 678
15.4.3 Darlington Pair Configuration 682
APPENDIX G
15.5 Power MOSFETs 684
The Error Function 729
15.5.1 Power Transistor Structures 684
15.5.2 Power MOSFET Characteristics 685
15.5.3 Parasitic BJT 689 APPENDIX H
15.6 The Thyristor 691 Answers to Selected Problems 730
15.6.1 The Basic Characteristics 691
15.6.2 Triggering the SCR 694 Index 738

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 PREFACE

PHILOSOPHY AND GOALS

The purpose of the fourth edition of this book is to provide a basis for understanding
the characteristics, operation, and limitations of semiconductor devices. In order to
gain this understanding, it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of the physics
of the semiconductor material. The goal of this book is to bring together quantum
mechanics, the quantum theory of solids, semiconductor material physics, and semi-
conductor device physics. All of these components are vital to the understanding of
both the operation of present-day devices and any future development in the field.
The amount of physics presented in this text is greater than what is covered
in many introductory semiconductor device books. Although this coverage is more
extensive, the author has found that once the basic introductory and material physics
have been thoroughly covered, the physics of the semiconductor device follows quite
naturally and can be covered fairly quickly and efficiently. The emphasis on the
underlying physics will also be a benefit in understanding and perhaps in developing
new semiconductor devices.
Since the objective of this text is to provide an introduction to the theory of
semiconductor devices, there is a great deal of advanced theory that is not consid-
ered. In addition, fabrication processes are not described in detail. There are a few
references and general discussions about processing techniques such as diffusion
and ion implantation, but only where the results of this processing have direct im-
pact on device characteristics.

PREREQUISITES
This text is intended for junior and senior undergraduates majoring in electrical en-
gineering. The prerequisites for understanding the material are college mathematics,
up to and including differential equations, basic college physics, and an introduction
to electromagnetics. An introduction to modern physics would be helpful, but is not
required. Also, a prior completion of an introductory course in electronic circuits is
helpful, but not essential.

ORGANIZATION
The text is divided into three parts—Part I covers the introductory quantum physics
and then moves on to the semiconductor material physics; Part II presents the physics
of the fundamental semiconductor devices; and Part III deals with specialized semi-
conductor devices including optical, microwave, and power devices.
Part I consists of Chapters 1 through 6. Chapter 1 presents an introduction to the
crystal structure of solids leading to the ideal single-crystal semiconductor material.

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 Preface xi

Chapters 2 and 3 introduce quantum mechanics and the quantum theory of solids,
which together provide the necessary basic physics. Chapters 4 through 6 cover the
semiconductor material physics. Chapter 4 considers the physics of the semiconduc-
tor in thermal equilibrium, Chapter 5 treats the transport phenomena of the charge
carriers in a semiconductor, and the nonequilibrium excess carrier characteristics are
developed in Chapter 6. Understanding the behavior of excess carriers in a semicon-
ductor is vital to the goal of understanding the device physics.
Part II consists of Chapters 7 through 13. Chapter 7 treats the electrostatics of
the basic pn junction and Chapter 8 covers the current–voltage, including the dc
and small-signal, characteristics of the pn junction diode. Metal–semiconductor
junctions, both rectifying and ohmic, and semiconductor heterojunctions are con-
sidered in Chapter 9. The basic physics of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MOSFET) is developed in Chapters 10 with additional concepts
presented in Chapter 11. Chapter 12 develops the theory of the bipolar transistor
and Chapter 13 covers the junction field-effect transistor (JFET). Once the physics
of the pn junction is developed, the chapters dealing with the three basic transistors
may be covered in any order—these chapters are written so as not to depend on one
another.
Part III consists of Chapters 14 and 15. Chapter 14 considers optical devices,
such as the solar cell and light emitting diode. Finally, semiconductor microwave
devices and semiconductor power devices are presented in Chapter 15.
Eight appendices are included at the end of the book. Appendix A contains
a selected list of symbols. Notation may sometimes become confusing, so this
appendix may aid in keeping track of all the symbols. Appendix B contains the
system of units, conversion factors, and general constants used throughout the text.
Appendix H lists answers to selected problems. Most students will find this appen-
dix helpful.

USE OF THE BOOK

The text is intended for a one-semester course at the junior or senior level. As with
most textbooks, there is more material than can be conveniently covered in one
semester; this allows each instructor some flexibility in designing the course to his
or her own specific needs. Two possible orders of presentation are discussed later in
a separate section in this preface. However, the text is not an encyclopedia. Sections
in each chapter that can be skipped without loss of continuity are identified by an as-
terisk in both the table of contents and in the chapter itself. These sections, although
important to the development of semiconductor device physics, can be postponed to
a later time.
The material in the text has been used extensively in a course that is required
for junior-level electrical engineering students at the University of New Mexico.
Slightly less than half of the semester is devoted to the first six chapters; the remain-
der of the semester is devoted to the pn junction, the metal–oxide–semiconductor
field-effect transistor, and the bipolar transistor. A few other special topics may be
briefly considered near the end of the semester.

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 xii Preface

As mentioned, although the MOS transistor is discussed prior to the bipolar

transistor or junction field-effect transistor, each chapter dealing with the basic types
of transistors is written to stand alone. Any one of the transistor types may be cov-
ered first.

NOTES TO THE READER

This book introduces the physics of semiconductor materials and devices. Although
many electrical engineering students are more comfortable building electronic cir-
cuits or writing computer programs than studying the underlying principles of semi-
conductor devices, the material presented here is vital to an understanding of the
limitations of electronic devices, such as the microprocessor.
Mathematics is used extensively throughout the book. This may at times seem
tedious, but the end result is an understanding that will not otherwise occur. Al-
though some of the mathematical models used to describe physical processes may
seem abstract, they have withstood the test of time in their ability to describe and
predict these physical processes.
The reader is encouraged to continually refer to the preview sections at the be-
ginning of each chapter so that the objective of the chapter and the purpose of each
topic can be kept in mind. This constant review is especially important in the first six
chapters, dealing with the basic physics.
The reader must keep in mind that, although some sections may be skipped without
loss of continuity, many instructors will choose to cover these topics. The fact that sec-
tions are marked with an asterisk does not minimize the importance of these subjects.
It is also important that the reader keep in mind that there may be questions still
unanswered at the end of a course. Although the author dislikes the phrase, “it can be
shown that . . . ,” there are some concepts used here that rely on derivations beyond
the scope of the text. This book is intended as an introduction to the subject. Those
questions remaining unanswered at the end of the course, the reader is encouraged to
keep “in a desk drawer.” Then, during the next course in this area of concentration,
the reader can take out these questions and search for the answers.

ORDER OF PRESENTATION
Each instructor has a personal preference for the order in which the course material is
presented. Listed below are two possible scenarios. The first case, called the MOSFET
approach, covers the MOS transistor before the bipolar transistor. It may be noted that
the MOSFET in Chapters 10 and 11 may be covered before the pn junction diode.
The second method of presentation listed, called the bipolar approach, is the
classical approach. Covering the bipolar transistor immediately after discussing
the pn junction diode is the traditional order of presentation. However, because the
MOSFET is left until the end of the semester, time constraints may shortchange the
amount of class time devoted to this important topic.
Unfortunately, because of time constraints, every topic in each chapter cannot
be covered in a one-semester course. The remaining topics must be left for a second-
semester course or for further study by the reader.

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 Preface xiii

MOSFET approach
Chapter 1 Crystal structure
Chapters 2, 3 Selected topics from quantum
mechanics and theory of solids
Chapter 4 Semiconductor physics
Chapter 5 Transport phenomena
Chapter 6 Selected topics from nonequilibrium
characteristics
Chapter 7 The pn junction
Chapters 10, 11 The MOS transistor
Chapter 8 The pn junction diode
Chapter 9 A brief discussion of the Schottky diode
Chapter 12 The bipolar transistor
Other selected topics

Bipolar approach
Chapter 1 Crystal structure
Chapters 2, 3 Selected topics from quantum
mechanics and theory of solids
Chapter 4 Semiconductor physics
Chapter 5 Transport phenomena
Chapter 6 Selected topics from nonequilibrium
characteristics
Chapters 7, 8 The pn junction and pn junction diode
Chapter 9 A brief discussion of the Schottky diode
Chapter 12 The bipolar transistor
Chapters 10, 11 The MOS transistor
Other selected topics

NEW TO THE FOURTH EDITION

Order of Presentation: The two chapters dealing with MOSFETs were
moved ahead of the chapter on bipolar transistors. This change emphasizes the
importance of the MOS transistor.
Semiconductor Microwave Devices: A short section was added in Chapter 15
covering three specialized semiconductor microwave devices.
New Appendix: A new Appendix F has been added dealing with effective
mass concepts. Two effective masses are used in various calculations in the
text. This appendix develops the theory behind each effective mass and dis-
cusses when to use each effective mass in a particular calculation.
Preview Sections: Each chapter begins with a brief introduction, which then
leads to a preview section given in bullet form. Each preview item presents a
particular objective for the chapter.
Exercise Problems: Over 100 new Exercise Problems have been added. An
Exercise Problem now follows each example. The exercise is very similar to
the worked example so that readers can immediately test their understanding of
the material just covered. Answers are given to each exercise problem.

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 xiv Preface

Test Your Understanding: Approximately 40 percent new Test Your Under-

standing problems are included at the end of many of the major sections of the
chapter. These exercise problems are, in general, more comprehensive than
those presented at the end of each example. These problems will also reinforce
readers’ grasp of the material before they move on to the next section.
End-of-Chapter Problems: There are 330 new end-of-chapter problems, which
means that approximately 48 percent of the problems are new to this edition.

RETAINED FEATURES OF THE TEXT

■ Mathematical Rigor: The mathematical rigor necessary to more clearly under-
stand the basic semiconductor material and device physics has been maintained.
■ Examples: An extensive number of worked examples are used throughout
the text to reinforce the theoretical concepts being developed. These examples
contain all the details of the analysis or design, so the reader does not have to
fill in missing steps.
■ Summary section: A summary section, in bullet form, follows the text of
each chapter. This section summarizes the overall results derived in the chapter
and reviews the basic concepts developed.
■ Glossary of important terms: A glossary of important terms follows the Sum-
mary section of each chapter. This section defines and summarizes the most
important terms discussed in the chapter.
■ Checkpoint: A checkpoint section follows the Glossary section. This section
states the goals that should have been met and the abilities the reader should
have gained. The Checkpoints will help assess progress before moving on to
the next chapter.
■ Review questions: A list of review questions is included at the end of each
chapter. These questions serve as a self-test to help the reader determine how
well the concepts developed in the chapter have been mastered.
■ End-of-chapter problems: A large number of problems are given at the end of
each chapter, organized according to the subject of each section in the chapter.
■ Summary and Review Problems: A few problems, in a Summary and Review
section, are open-ended design problems and are given at the end of most chapters.
■ Reading list: A reading list finishes up each chapter. The references, which are
at an advanced level compared with that of this text, are indicated by an asterisk.
■ Answers to selected problems: Answers to selected problems are given in the
last appendix. Knowing the answer to a problem is an aid and a reinforcement
in problem solving.

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 Preface xv

ONLINE RESOURCES
A website to accompany this text is available at www.mhhe.com/neamen. The site
includes the solutions manual as well as an image library for instructors. Instructors can
also obtain access to C.O.S.M.O.S. for the fourth edition. C.O.S.M.O.S. is a Complete
Online Solutions Manual Organization System instructors can use to create exams and
assignments, create custom content, and edit supplied problems and solutions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to the many students I have had over the years who have helped in the
evolution of this fourth edition as well as to the previous editions of this text. I am
grateful for their enthusiasm and constructive criticism.
I want to thank the many people at McGraw-Hill for their tremendous support.
To Peter Massar, sponsoring editor, and Lora Neyens, development editor, I am grate-
ful for their encouragement, support, and attention to the many details of this project.
I also appreciate the efforts of project managers who guided this work through its
final phase toward publication. This effort included gently, but firmly, pushing me
through proofreading.
Let me express my continued appreciation to those reviewers who read the
manuscripts of the first three editions in its various forms and gave constructive criti-
cism. I also appreciate the efforts of accuracy checkers who worked through the new
problem solutions in order to minimize any errors I may have introduced. Finally,
my thanks go out to those individuals who have reviewed the book prior to this new
edition being published. Their contributions and suggestions for continued improve-
ment are very valuable.

REVIEWERS FOR THE FOURTH EDITION

The following reviewers deserve thanks for their constructive criticism and sugges-
tions for the fourth edition of this book.
Sandra Selmic, Louisiana Tech University
Terence Brown, Michigan State University
Timothy Wilson, Oklahoma State University
Lili He, San Jose State University
Jiun Liou, University of Central Florida
Michael Stroscio, University of Illinois-Chicago
Andrei Sazonov, University of Waterloo

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 xvi Preface

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nea29583_fm_i-xxiv.indd xvi 12/11/10 1:01 PM

 P R O L O G U E

Semiconductors and the

Integrated Circuit

PREVIEW

W
e often hear that we are living in the information age. Large amounts of
information can be obtained via the Internet, for example, and can be
obtained very quickly over long distances via satellite communications
systems. The information technologies are based upon digital and analog electronic
systems, with the transistor and integrated circuit (IC) being the foundation of these re-
markable capabilities. Wireless communication systems, including printers, faxes, lap-
top computers, ipods, and of course the cell phones are big users of today’s IC products.
The cell phone is not just a telephone any longer, but includes e-mail services and video
cameras, for example. Today, a relatively small laptop computer has more computing
capability than the equipment used to send a man to the moon a few decades ago. The
semiconductor electronics field continues to be a fast-changing one, with thousands of
technical papers published and many new electronic devices developed each year. ■

HISTORY
The semiconductor device has a fairly long history, although the greatest explo-
sion of IC technology has occured during the last two or three decades.1 The metal–
semiconductor contact dates back to the early work of Braun in 1874, who discovered
the asymmetric nature of electrical conduction between metal contacts and semicon-
ductors, such as copper, iron, and lead sulfide. These devices were used as detectors
in early experiments on radio. In 1906, Pickard took out a patent for a point contact

1
This brief introduction is intended to give a flavor of the history of the semiconductor device and
integrated circuit. Thousands of engineers and scientists have made significant contributions to the
development of semiconductor electronics—the few events and names mentioned here are not meant
to imply that these are the only significant events or people involved in the semiconductor history.

xvii

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 xviii Prolouge

Compliments of Texas Instruments Incorporated

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 Prolouge xix

detector using silicon and, in 1907, Pierce published rectification characteristics of

diodes made by sputtering metals onto a variety of semiconductors.
By 1935, selenium rectifiers and silicon point contact diodes were available
for use as radio detectors. A significant advance in our understanding of the metal–
semiconductor contact was aided by developments in semiconductor physics. In
1942, Bethe developed the thermionic-emission theory, according to which the cur-
rent is determined by the process of emission of electrons into the metal rather than
by drift or diffusion. With the development of radar, the need for better and more
reliable detector diodes and mixers increased. Methods of achieving high-purity sili-
con and germanium were developed during this time and germanium diodes became
a key component in radar systems during the Second World War.
Another big breakthrough came in December 1947 when the first transistor was
constructed and tested at Bell Telephone Laboratories by William Shockley, John
Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. This first transistor was a point contact device and used
polycrystalline germanium. The transistor effect was soon demonstrated in silicon as
well. A significant improvement occurred at the end of 1949 when single-crystal
material was used rather than the polycrystalline material. The single crystal yields
uniform and improved properties throughout the whole semiconductor material.
The next significant step in the development of the transistor was the use of
the diffusion process to form the necessary junctions. This process allowed better
control of the transistor characteristics and yielded higher-frequency devices. The
diffused mesa transistor was commercially available in germanium in 1957 and in
silicon in 1958. The diffusion process also allowed many transistors to be fabricated
on a single silicon slice, so the cost of these devices decreased.

THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

The transistor led to a revolution in electronics since it is smaller and more reliable
than vacuum tubes used previously. The circuits at that time were discrete in that
each element had to be individually connected by wires to form the circuit. The in-
tegrated circuit has led to a new revolution in electronics that was not possible with
discrete devices. Integration means that complex circuits, consisting of millions of
devices, can be fabricated on a single chip of semiconductor material.
The first IC was fabricated in February of 1959 by Jack Kilby of Texas Instru-
ments. In July 1959, a planar version of the IC was independently developed by
Robert Noyce of Fairchild. The first integrated circuits incorporated bipolar transis-
tors. Practical MOS transistors were then developed in the mid-1960s and 1970s.
The MOS technologies, especially CMOS, have become a major focus for IC design
and development. Silicon is the main semiconductor material, while gallium arse-
nide and other compound semiconductor materials are used for optical devices and
for special applications requiring very high frequency devices.
Since the first IC, very sophisticated and complex circuits have been designed
and fabricated. A single silicon chip may be on the order of 1 square centimeter and
some ICs may have more than a hundred terminals. An IC can contain the arithmetic,
logic, and memory functions on a single chip—the primary example of this type of IC

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 xx Prolouge

is the microprocessor. Integration means that circuits can be miniaturized for use in
satellites and laptop computers where size, weight, and power are critical parameters.
An important advantage of ICs is the result of devices being fabricated very
close to each other. The time delay of signals between devices is short so that high-
frequency and high-speed circuits are now possible with ICs that were not practical
with discrete circuits. In high-speed computers, for example, the logic and memory
circuits can be placed very close to each other to minimize time delays. In addition,
parasitic capacitance and inductance between devices are reduced which also pro-
vides improvement in the speed of the system.
Intense research on silicon processing and increased automation in design and
manufacturing have led to lower costs, higher fabrication yields, and greater reliabil-
ity of integrated circuits.

FABRICATION
The integrated circuit is a direct result of the development of various processing tech-
niques needed to fabricate the transistor and interconnect lines on the single chip. The
total collection of these processes for making an IC is called a technology. The following
few paragraphs provide an introduction to a few of these processes. This introduction is
intended to provide the reader with some of the basic terminology used in processing.
Thermal Oxidation A major reason for the success of silicon ICs is the fact that
an excellent native oxide, SiO2, can be formed on the surface of silicon. This oxide is
used as a gate insulator in the MOSFET and is also used as an insulator, known as the
field oxide, between devices. Metal interconnect lines that connect various devices
can be placed on top of the field oxide. Most other semiconductors do not form native
oxides that are of sufficient quality to be used in device fabrication.
Silicon will oxidize at room temperature in air forming a thin native oxide of ap-
proximately 25 Å thick. However, most oxidations are done at elevated temperatures
since the basic process requires that oxygen diffuse through the existing oxide to
the silicon surface where a reaction can occur. A schematic of the oxidation process
is shown in Figure 0.1. Oxygen diffuses across a stagnant gas layer directly adjacent

SiO2 Silicon

Gas
Diffusion
of O2
Stagnant
gas layer
Diffusion of O2
through existing
oxide to silicon surface

Figure 0.1 | Schematic of the oxidation

process.

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 Prolouge xxi

UV source

Photomask Glass

UV-absorbing
material
Photoresist
Silicon

Figure 0.2 | Schematic showing the use of a photomask.

to the oxide surface and then diffuses through the existing oxide layer to the silicon
surface where the reaction between O2 and Si forms SiO2. Because of this reaction,
silicon is actually consumed from the surface of the silicon. The amount of silicon
consumed is approximately 44 percent of the thickness of the final oxide.
Photomasks and Photolithography The actual circuitry on each chip is created
through the use of photomasks and photolithography. The photomask is a physical
representation of a device or a portion of a device. Opaque regions on the mask are
made of an ultraviolet-light-absorbing material. A photosensitive layer, called pho-
toresist, is first spread over the surface of the semiconductor. The photoresist is an
organic polymer that undergoes chemical change when exposed to ultraviolet light.
The photoresist is exposed to ultraviolet light through the photomask as indicated in
Figure 0.2. The photoresist is then developed in a chemical solution. The developer
is used to remove the unwanted portions of the photoresist and generate the appropri-
ate patterns on the silicon. The photomasks and photolithography process is critical
in that it determines how small the devices can be made. Instead of using ultraviolet
light, electrons and x-rays can also be used to expose the photoresist.
Etching After the photoresist pattern is formed, the remaining photoresist can be
used as a mask, so that the material not covered by the photoresist can be etched. Plasma
etching is now the standard process used in IC fabrication. Typically, an etch gas such
as chlorofluorocarbons is injected into a low-pressure chamber. A plasma is created by
applying a radio-frequency voltage between cathode and anode terminals. The silicon
wafer is placed on the cathode. Positively charged ions in the plasma are accelerated to-
ward the cathode and bombard the wafer normal to the surface. The actual chemical and
physical reaction at the surface is complex, but the net result is that silicon can be etched
anisotropically in very selected regions of the wafer. If photoresist is applied on the
surface of silicon dioxide, then the silicon dioxide can also be etched in a similar way.
Diffusion A thermal process that is used extensively in IC fabrication is diffusion.
Diffusion is the process by which specific types of “impurity” atoms can be intro-
duced into the silicon material. This doping process changes the conductivity type
of the silicon so that pn junctions can be formed. (The pn junction is a basic build-
ing block of semiconductor devices.) Silicon wafers are oxidized to form a layer of

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 xxii Prolouge

silicon dioxide, and windows are opened in the oxide in selected areas using photo-
lithography and etching as just described.
The wafers are then placed in a high-temperature furnace (about 1100⬚C) and dopant
atoms such as boron or phosphorus are introduced. The dopant atoms gradually diffuse
or move into the silicon due to a density gradient. Since the diffusion process requires
a gradient in the concentration of atoms, the final concentration of diffused atoms is
nonlinear, as shown in Figure 0.3. When the wafer is removed from the furnace and the
wafer temperature returns to room temperature, the diffusion coefficient of the dopant
atoms is essentially zero so that the dopant atoms are then fixed in the silicon material.
Ion Implantation A fabrication process that is an alternative to high-temperature
diffusion is ion implantation. A beam of dopant ions is accelerated to a high energy
and is directed at the surface of a semiconductor. As the ions enter the silicon, they
collide with silicon atoms and lose energy and finally come to rest at some depth
within the crystal. Since the collision process is statistical in nature, there is a dis-
tribution in the depth of penetration of the dopant ions. Figure 0.4 shows such an
example of the implantation of boron into silicon at a particular energy.
Two advantages of the ion implantation process compared to diffusion are
(1) the ion implantation process is a low-temperature process and (2) very well
Doping concentration

Diffused
impurities

Background doping

Surface Distance

Figure 0.3 | Final concentration of diffused

impurities into the surface of a semiconductor.
Doping concentration

Surface Rp Distance
(Projected range)

Figure 0.4 | Final concentration of

ion-implanted boron into silicon.

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 Prolouge xxiii

defined doping layers can be achieved. Photoresist layers or layers of oxide can be
used to block the penetration of dopant atoms so that ion implantation can occur in
very selected regions of the silicon.
One disadvantage of ion implantation is that the silicon crystal is damaged by the
penetrating dopant atoms because of collisions between the incident dopant atoms
and the host silicon atoms. However, most of the damage can be removed by thermal
annealing the silicon at an elevated temperature. The thermal annealing temperature,
however, is normally much less that the diffusion process temperature.
Metallization, Bonding, and Packaging After the semiconductor devices have been
fabricated by the processing steps discussed, they need to be connected to each other to
form the circuit. Metal films are generally deposited by a vapor deposition technique,
and the actual interconnect lines are formed using photolithography and etching. In
general, a protective layer of silicon nitride is finally deposited over the entire chip.
The individual integrated circuit chips are separated by scribing and breaking the
wafer. The integrated circuit chip is then mounted in a package. Lead bonders are fi-
nally used to attach gold or aluminum wires between the chip and package terminals.
Summary: Simplified Fabrication of a pn Junction Figure 0.5 shows the basic
steps in forming a pn junction. These steps involve some of the processing described
in the previous paragraphs.

PR
SiO2
SiO2
n type n n

1. Start with 2. Oxidize surface 3. Apply photoresist

n-type substrate over SiO2

UV light
Photomask
Exposed
PR removed SiO2 etched

n n n

3. Expose photoresist 4. Remove exposed 5. Etch exposed SiO2

through photomask photoresist

Ion implant
or diffuse p regions Apply Al Al contacts

p n p n p n p

6. Ion implant or 7. Remove PR and 8. Apply PR, photomask,

diffuse boron sputter Al on and etch to form Al
into silicon surface contacts over p regions

Figure 0.5 | The basic steps in forming a pn junction.

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 xxiv Prolouge

READING LIST
1. Campbell, S. A. The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication. 2nd ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
2. Ghandhi, S. K. VLSI Fabrication Principles: Silicon and Gallium Arsenide. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1983.
3. Rhoderick, E. H. Metal-Semiconductor Contacts. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.
4. Runyan, W. R., and K. E. Bean. Semiconductor Integrated Circuit Processing
Technology. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990.
5. Torrey, H. C., and C. A. Whitmer. Crystal Rectifiers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948.
6. Wolf, S., and R. N. Tauber. Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era, 2nd ed. Sunset Beach,
CA: Lattice Press, 2000.

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