HumanImpactandClimateChange

FossilFuels
FossilFuels:
Fossilfuelswereformedamillionyearsagofromprehistoriclivingorganisms.
Threemajorformsarecoal,oiland
natural
gas.Whenlivingorganismsdiedthey
decomposedandeventuallybecameburiedundermanylayersofEarth.

OilorPetroleum:
Thesourceofoilareremainsofdiatomsandplantsthatinhabitedshallow
seas.Theremainssanktotheseafloorandtheirorganicmaterialscombinedwithother
matter.Overtimesedimentandotherrockburiedandcompressedthem.Asyearspassed
theseasdriedupanddrybasinswereleft,butunderthebasinsstillremaintheorganic
materialthatthenfromgreatheatandpressurefromEarth'smantlethematterturnedinto
kerogen,awaxysubstance.Additionalheattransformedkerogentohydrocarbons.The
processissimilartotheothersourcesoffossilfuels,butdifferentcombinationsofheatand
pressurecreatedifferenthydrocarbons.Petroleumcanbefoundinpresentdaywhere
ancientsseaswerelocated,eitherbeneathlandoroceanfloor.

Naturalgas:
Islighterthanairandmostlymadeofmethane.Itisformedbytheremainsof
livingorganismsbeingburiedunderintenseconditionsjustasoilorpetroleum,butit
requiresmoreintenseheatandpressure.Theintentensetemperaturesthatcontributetothe
formationofthefossilfuelcausescarbonbondswithinthemattertobreakitdown.The
processofthebreakageproducesthermogenicmethaneornaturalgas.Naturalgas
depositsareusuallylocatedbynearbyoildeposits.Itcanalsobeformedfromnatural
matterssuchasmethanogensthatliveintheintestinesofanimals,orlowoxygenareas
beneathsEarthscrustbutclosetothesurface.

Coal:
Isahardblackrock.Threemaintypesofcoalareanthracite,bituminousandlignite.
Anthraciteisthehardestformofcoal,whereasligniteisthesoftestandbituminousisin
between.Coalcanbefoundin48outof50U.Sstates.Itisfoundbyminingsinkingvertical
andorhorizontalshafts.Theenvironmentthatformedthefossilfuelwereanareathatwas
coveredbyshallowseasanddenseforests.Occasionally,theseaswouldfloodtheforests
pushingmarineplantstothebottomofswamywetlands.Thematterwasthencoveredby
layersandlayersofothersedimentandcompressedunderhightemperatures.Theplant
matterwasrestrictedfromoxygencausingittodecomposeataslowrate.Fromtheextreme
conditionsiteventuallyturnedintopeat.Peatafterextremeheatandpressure,or
carbonization,fromtheEarth'scrusttransformsintocoal.


GreenhouseEffect
Greenhousegas:
Gaseouscompoundintheatmospherethathastheabilitytoabsorb
infraredradiation.Thecompoundthentrapsandholdheatintheatmosphere,increasingthe
heatthatisintheatmosphere.Highatmosphereheatleadstoglobalwarming.Greenhouse
gasestrapheatintheatmospheretokeeptheEarthwarm.

Processofgreenhouseeffect:
1. Sunlight(energysource)entersEarth'satmosphereandthenbeamsdownonthe
Earth'ssurface
2. Landandwaterabsorbsomeofthesunlightemittedandtherestisreflectedback
intospace
3. Earth'ssurfacewarmsandgivesoffenergyintheformofinfraredradiation
4. Theinfraredenergytravelsintospace
5. Greenhousegasestrapsomeoftheinfraredenergyintotheatmospherebeforeit
completelygetsour
6. TheEarthwarms
NormalgreenhousegaslevelsaregoodforEarth.ItallowsEarthtowarmandgrow
plantsforhumanstolivehealthily.Extragreenhousegasesaffecttheamountofheat
trappedintheEarth'satmospherebywarmingtheplanetevenmore.Warmingtemperature
leadtodifferentweathereffectslikechangingrainandsnowpatterns,risingsealevels,
meltingglaciersandicesheets.
HumansareoverloadingtheEarth'satmospherewithgreenhousegasesandby
strengtheningthegreenhouseeffecttheyareupsettingtheEarth'snaturalbalanceand
warmingtheplanet.
Greenhouseeffectonclimate:TheEarthhasanaturalbalancewhenthereareincreased
levelsofgreenhousegasesintheatmospheredisruptstheEarth'sbalance.Thedisruption
oftheEarth'sbalancecanleadtoawarmingeffect.

Howweknowthegreenhouseeffecthascausedourclimatechange&in
whatwaysisourclimatechanging
Globalwarming:
TheslowheatriseoftheEarthssurface.Accordingtothe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Earthssurfaceinthepastcenturyrisenan
averageof1.4degreesFahrenheit(0.8degreesCelsius).Itispredictedthatinthe
next100yearstheEarthssurfacetemperaturewillincrease2to11.5degreesF
(1.133to6.4degreesC).


SolarRadiationandtheGreenhouseEffect
ThesungivesoffanenormousamountofradiationthathitstheEarthsatmosphereinmany
formsthatarenotvisibletotheeye.Clouds,iceandreflectivesurfacesonlyreflectan
estimateof30percentofthisradiationbackouttospace,whiletheremaining70percentis
absorbedbyEarth'swaters,landandatmosphere.Astheoceans,etc.absorbtheradiation
theyreleaseIRthermalradiationheatthatthenpassesoutoftheatmosphereintospace.
TheEarthhasanaturalbalanceofhavingincomingandoutgoingradiationsothatitstaysat
anormalheat,whichisaround59degreesF.Anexamplewouldbeagreenhousethehas
UVradiationpassingthroughtheglasswallsthatmakethehouse.Theplantsandhard
surfacesinsidethegreenhouseabsorbtheradiationandthenreleaseradiation.The
radiationthatisreleasedisweakerthanwhatcameinandisnotabletopassout,becoming
trappedandwarmingthegreenhouse.

FossilFuelCombustion
Naturalgasismainlycomprisedofcarbonhydrogencompoundssuchasmethane(CH4),
ethane(C2H6),propane(C3H8),andbutane(C4H10).Whereascoalispredominantly
carbon(CO),butalsoconsistsofhydrogen(H2),nitrogen(N2),sulfur(S)andoxygen(O2).
Coalhasthelongestandmostcomplexhydrocarbonmolecules,whichiswhyitreleasesthe
mostCO2.Oil/Petroleumismadeofmultiplehydrocarbons,whichisthecombinationof
carbonandhydrogen.Thedensertheoilisthelongerthecarbonchainsareinmolecules.
Theclassificationofpetroleumfossilfuelsare:Paraffins(CnH2n+2),Aromatics(C6H5Y),
andNapthenesorCycloalkanes(CnH2n).Thenrepresentsawholenumberbetween120
andYisalongstraightmoleculethatconnectstothebenzenering.Theprocessof
combustionisalmostthesameforallformsoffossilfuelsfollowingthesameformulaof:a
fuel(hydrocarbons)+oxygen(O2)=CO2+H2O.WhencombustionoccursCO2,waterand
heatareproduced.Firststepofcombustionishavingasourceofenergytobreakthebond
ofthemolecules.Thebondenergyrequiredtodisruptthebondhydrocarbonmoleculesisa
lotlessthantheenergyreleasedinthebondsofCO2andH2O.Likewise,whenthe
formationofnewbondsandmoleculesofwaterandcarbondioxide,exothermicprocess,
thisprocessreleasesagreatamountofenergy.

ReleaseofCarbonDioxide
Naturallythereleaseofcarbondioxide(CO2)intotheatmosphereispartofthe
Earth'scarboncycle,buthumanactivitiesarecausingchangesinthiscyclebyincreasing
thelevelofCO2intheatmosphereandinfluencingnaturalsinkstoremoveCO2fromthe
atmosphere.CO2levelsarehigherthantheyhaveeverbeeninhistory.ThereleaseofCO2
fromfossilfuelcombustiondisruptstheEarth'snaturalcarboncycleandisthegreatest
sourceofgreenhousegasemission.Ithasalsocontributedgreatlytothedramaticchanges

intheEarthstemperatures.Thenaturalprocessofthecarboncycleisplantsabsorbing
CO2fromtheairandprocessingitintofood.Thenfollowinganimalseatthefoodthatwas
producedandstorethecarbonintheirbodytissue.TheanimalsthenreleaseCO2through
respiration.WhenfossilfuelsareburnedorcombustedtheyreleasetheCO2becausethe
sourcesoffossilfuels,deadorganisms,hadacquiredcarbon.
Carbondioxideincreasealludestotemperatureincrease.Thecorrespondenceis
partlyduetoexchangeoftemperatureandcarbondioxidesolubilityonoceansurfaces.The
exchangeofthetwoconsistsoffeedbackthathappensbetweencarbondioxideandclimate.
Jumpingbackinhistory,researchsuggestthatastheworlddevelopedbeyondtheiceage
about20,000yearsago,Antarctica'swarmingintroducedthechangesofcarbondioxide
levelsgloballyby800years.IntheiceageeraCO2levelswereatanestimateof200parts
permillion(ppm).Duringinterglacialperiodlevelswerejustabout80ppmhigher.
Humanbehaviorsuchaspopulation,economicgrowth,andbehaviorchangesare
someexamplesofhowhumanscontributetotheexcessCO2intheatmosphere.Therapid
increaseofgasesintheatmospherewasmostnotableduringtheIndustrialRevolution,as
factorieswerebeingcreatedandrunned.AccordingtotheNationalOceanicand
AtmosphericAdministrationtheIndustrialRevolutionincreasedtheamountofCO2inthe
atmosphereby100timesfasterthanduringmostrecenticeage.Humanactivitiessincethe
IndustrialRevolutionhasincreasedatmosphericCO2concentrationby41percent.
Between1990and2003thelevelofCO2emissionincreasesevenpercent,partdue
toincreasedenergyusefromthegrowingeconomyandpopulationandtransportation
emissionfromincreasedmotorvehicletravel.Recentlyin2013,82percentofgreenhouse
gasemissioncausedbyhumanactivitieswasCO2,contributingtothehighCO2levelofan
averageof400ppm.

EvidenceourClimateisChanging
IcecoresfromvariouspartsoftheworldshowhowtheEarthsclimatereactstothe
changesingreenhousegaslevels.
Sealevelrise:
Inthelastcenturysealevelrose17centimeterswhichisequivalentto6.7
inches.Itispredictedthatinthelastdecadesealevelshavedoubleofthatoflastcentury.
AsofOctober2015thesealevelis72.5mmandappearstoberising3.39mmperyear.The
maincausesoftheriseinsealevelare:additionalwaterthatgeneratederivedfromlandice
melting:andseawaterexpandingasitwarms.


Globaltemperaturerise:
Earthssurfacecontinuestorise.Sincethe1880Earthhas
warmedandthe1970speriodwaswhenEarthwasnoticeablywarming.The10most
warmestyearsspendingfrom1884to2015hasoccurredsince2000,except1998,and
2015isthewarmestyearoutofall.TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange
concludedthatthereismorethana90percentprobabilitythathumanactivitieshave
increasedtherateoftheEarthwarming.Moderncivilizationhasraisedatmosphericcarbon
dioxidelevelsfrom280partspermillionto400partspermillioninaspanof150yearsand
incorrelationthishassomewhatbeencausedbyhumanactivitiesreleasinggreenhouse
gaseslikeCO2.
Oceanaffectonclimate:
TheflowoftheoceanfollowstheprocessoftheGreatOcean
ConveyorBelt.Climateisaffectedbythisbecauseoceanscarryheattothethenorthinthe
AtlanticOcean.TheAtlanticcoldwatersinksdeepinthewaterandspreads.Coldwaterthat
sinksisreplacedbywarmwaterthatisnearthesurface.Theheatthatiscarriedhelpskeep
theAtlanticoceanandindirectlycountrieswarm.Saltoceansalsohavethesameeffect,just
likecoldwater,saltwatersinksdeepbecauseoftheweightithas.Whensaltwaterfreezes
indisablesicefromholdingthesalt.WhenandiftoomuchicemeltstheNorthAtlantic
oceanwillbecomelesssalty.Iwouldassumethenthiswoulddisrupttheflowofthe
conveyerbelt,resultinginlesswarmingoftheoceanandcountries.

Warmingoceans:
Oceansabsorbthealotofheatpartlyduetoradiationmakingthetop700
metersofoceanswarmingof0.302degreesFbecausethetopfewmetersoftheocean
storesheat.OceansareabletosoakuponequarterofCO2createdbyhumansbecauseof
thelifethatlivesinside.Thefishandotherorganismsintheoceanbreathoxygenand
releaseCO2,whileoceanplantsabsorbcarbondioxideandreleaseoxygen.Thedownside
ofthisbesideglobalwarmingisoceansarebecominglessalkalineandmoreacidic.Alkaline
isimportantforoceanstocontinuetohavebecauseitcreatesabalanceneededfor
organismsthatliveinthewatersafety.Ifoceansareacidicthatitbecomesharderforsome
organismstocreatestrongshellsfortheirprotection,suchasmusselsandevenskeletons.

OceanAcidification
Inadditiontothat,tofurtherexplaintheharmfuleffectsofoceanacidificationisto
simplyconsiderthelifethatisbeingdestroyed.OnequarterofCO2producedisabsorbed
byoceans.WhenthatCO2mixeswiththewater,thewaterbecomesanacidandmarine
organismsareexposedtothis.Someareespeciallysensitivesotheacidicwaterbecause
theyusematterinthewatertobuildtheirprotectiveshell.Organismsthatliveinacidicwater
havetoworkhardertobuildtheirshellleavinglessenergyforthemtoperformnatural
actionslikecollectingfoodandreproducing.Thiscouldultimatelyleadtotheseorganisms
unabletocompeteecologically.Oneexampleofthiswouldbetheterrapodpopulation.
Terrapodsareseasnailsthatareatypeofplanktonthatliveinpolarwatersaroundthe
world.Iftheseorganismsweretobecomeextinctthebasicfoodchainwoulddramatically
changefortheworse.Theorganismsserveasabasicfoodsourceforfishandfishserveas
oneofthebasicfoodsourcesforhumans.Ifsuchhappensthefoodchainwillbecome
weakerandvulnerable.Eventheenvironmentofoceanswillbeaffectednegatively,suchas
coralreefs.ThewarmingoftemperaturesandoceanaciditycausedbyoverwhelmingCO2
levelshasleftcoralreefsincrumbles.Thatisbecausethereefsinsuchconditionsare
unabletoformskeletonsasitwouldbeabletoifitwereinhealthierconditions.Overa
millionspeciesinhabitthereefsanditispredictedthatinthenext20to30yearswecould
potentiallyloseallcoralreefs.Essentiallytorepairouroceanstheworldneedstoadmitless
CO2.Suchcanbedonebygettingmorewithlessenergythroughbettertechnologyand
exploitresourceswealreadyhave,suchassunlight,wind,tidesandheatfromtheEarths
core.Weneedtogobeyondtheuseoffossilfuelstocreateapromisingfutureforourselves
andtheEarth'sanimals.
HowGreenhouseGasesAffectGlobalWarming
Whiletheprocessofglobalwarmingisnaturaltheamountofgasemittedbyhumans
throughcars,energy,commercialuse,etc.hascreatedanatmospherefullofunnecessary
andharmfulgasses.
Thereisagreatamountofcarbondioxideintheatmospherethatisplayinghugerole
inglobalwarming.CO2isreleasedthroughanaturalprocesssuchasrespirationand
volcaniceruptionsandthroughhumanactivities.Thingssuchasdeforestation,lanuuse,
andburningoffossilfuelsareafewexamplesofhumanactivitiesthatreleaseCO2.In2012
theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyevaluatedthatgreenhouseemissionstotalwas6,526
millionmetrictonsofcarbondioxide.Notonlyisthatagreatamountbutthelastingeffectof
thegaseouscompoundcanlastthousandsofyears.
Humanactivitiesarechangingthenaturalgreenhouse.Theburningoffossilfuels,
suchascoalandoilhasincreasedtheamountofcarbondioxideintheatmosphere.
CombustioncombinescarbonandoxygenintheatmospherethatthencreatesCO2.The
processofmoderncivilizationhasencouragedtheincreaseofconcentrationofCO2.Asfar
asglobalwarmingisconcerned,accordingtotheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Earths

surfaceinthepastcenturyrisenanaverageof1.4degreesFahrenheit(0.8degrees
Celsius).Itispredictedthatinthenext100yearstheEarthssurfacetemperaturewill
increase2to11.5degreesF(1.133to6.4degreesC).

TheRoleofOceans
Absorbingofheat
TherolethatEarth'soceansplaywhenabsorbing90percentofexcessheatorenergyfrom
trappedgreenhousegasemissionshasshownmercyuponourplanet.Oceanshave60
timesmorecarbonthattheatmosphere.Humanitysexcessivecarbonemissionsare
startingtocatchup.Asoceanscontinuetheseactionthereisariseofenergyoverload
boilingunderwater.Accordingtoyearofresearchoceansareheatingfasteranddeeper
thanexpectedandareshowingsignsthattheyarereleasingbuiltupthermalenergythatis
contributingtoglobaltemperatureincreases.Oceanshavebeenheatingupatarateof
approximately0.5to1wattofenergypersquaremeter.Theaveragedeepestdepthof
Earth'soceansaremorethan17,000ft,contributingtooceansabilitytostoreanimmense
amountofheatandbecauseofheatcapacity.Oceanscanabsorbalotofwithoutdrastic
temperaturechange.TheEarthssurfacetemperaturehasincreased,butnotasmuchas
expectedbecauseofhiatusorthepauseofglobalwarmingfromoceansabsorbingheat.
Pacifictradewindsthatareintherenegativeorcoolphasehavesomewhatcontributedto
theinterruptiontheofglobaltemperatureincreasebypushingatmosphericheattothe
westernPacific.Ifandwhenwindsswayintoitspositiveorwarmphareburiedheatwillrise

backintotheatmosphereandwiththatwarmingwillhappenfasterbecausegreenhouse
gaseswillbeelevated.Accordingto
LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryresearch
scientistPaulDurack,19702004thetop700metersofoceansintheSouthernHemisphere
was48to166percenthotterthanestimatedandevenglobally24or58percentmoreheat
isstoredinoceans.Between2006and2013researchersfoundthat2/3to98percentof
oceanheatgainoccurredbytheequator500to2,000metersdeep.Itisestimatedthatfrom
500to2,000metersdeepthereisawarmingof.002degreesCeveryyearandthetop500
meters.003degreesCannually.Oceanscurrentsdriveextraoceanheat700to2,000
metersdeepandtraptheheat.Ifthisisdisruptedonemajorconcernisthattheincreaseof
temperatureswilllessenoceansabilitytoabsorbcarbon.Theroleofcarbonabsorbingis
crucialforlesseningtheimpactthatgreenhousegaseshave,eventhoughitismaking
watersmoreacidic.Nearly50percentofhumansCO2outputisdissolvedinseawaterand
eddiesdrivenbywindsburytheCO2deeply.Risingoceantemperaturesandlesswinds
wouldincreaseCO2saturationandatmosphericheattrappinggas.

ArcticSeaIce
Seaiceisfrozenwaterwithsnowontopthatoriginatesfromwhatwhereicebergs,glaciers
andiceshelvesoriginatedfromlandandfloatinwater.Seaiceisimportantbecauseithelps
polarregionskeepcoolandmoderatesglobalclimate.Sunlightbeamsontoseaicesurface
and80percentofthatlightisthenreflectedbackintospace.Butinthesummer(starting
fromMarchtoSeptember)asseaicemeltsinsteadoflightbeingreflectedbackit90percent
ofitisabsorbed,causingoceanstoheatandanincreaseinArctictemperatures.Small
temperatureincreasecanbedrasticovertimetopolesandmakingthemmorevulnerableto
climatechange.Thethicknessandthelastofsummerhavedeclined.Thewarmingofthe
Arcticanddeclineandseaicecanpotentiallyincreaseglobalwarmingandchangethe
climatebecauseseaiceisbecominglessresistant.

EffectofSolarRadiationAbsorption
Thesunprovidesheatenergythroughtheprocessofitmovingthroughspace,entering
Earth'satmosphereandfinallyreachingEarth'ssurface.Thesunsradiationwhenitenters
theatmosphereandreachestheEarth'ssurfacewarmsthetwoandbecomesheatenergy.
Radiation,conductionandconvectiontransfersheatenergythroughtheatmosphere.

Radiation:
Thetransferofenergythroughelectromagneticwavesintheformofvisiblelight.
Solarradiationispassedthroughtheatmosphereandisabsorbedbyobjectsandthe
objectswarmup.Darkercoloredobjectsabsorblightenergyandwarmfasterthanlight
objects,whichwillthenreflectenergybackintospace.Radiationthatisemittedhavelonger
wavelengthsthanwhatisvisibletotheeye,thisisalsoknownasinfraredradiation.

Conduction:
Thetransferofheatfromonemoleculetoanotherwithinasubstance.Heat
movesfromcoldtowarmregionandcantransferatgreatspeeds.Heattransferdependsif
theobjectishotorcoldandwhetherisagoodconductor.Airisnotagoodconductor,
makingconductionmostimportantintheatmosphereattheseveralmillimetersclosetothe
surface.

Convection:
Thetransferofheatthroughfluidmovementthatcanoccurinliquidsand
gases,suchaswaterorair.Theprocessofconvectionisthecoolerorheavierpartofa
substancesmovedownandisreplacedbythewarmerpartofthesubstance.

TheAlbedoEffect
Themorereflectivethesurfaceoftheplanetthehigherthealbedoorthepercentageofhow
muchenergyisgoinginandthenbouncingbackintospace.Albedocanbemeasurefrom0
to1,0meaningblackand1meaningwhite.Blackor0hasasurfacethatabsorbsallenergy
ofheat.Whiteor1isasurfacethatreflectsallincomingenergy.Theperfectalbedowould
beasurfacewithhalfdarkandhalflightsurface,creatinga100percentabsorptionand
reflection.Whenalbedoiszeropercentthanthesurfaceitisbouncingoffofiscompletely
dark.Thefeedbackloopiswhereoneenvironmentalconditioncancausechangeinthe
otherenvironmentalconditionthatthencauseachangeinthefirstcondition.Anegative
feedbackloopisinitialchangestotheplanetarebuffered,makingtheplanetstabel.Thereis
notanequalbalanceofabsorptionandreflection.Apositivefeedbackloopcreatesan
unstableclimate.Forexamplethenorthpolehasahighalbedobecauseithasoftheregion
beingalightsurface.Astemperaturerisesnowandicemeltandtheoceanabsorbsmore
heatenergywarmingthewaterandtheplanet.Theaverageoceanalbedois0.06,where
bareoceanhasa0.5to0.7albedoandicewithsnowalbedoequals0.9.Whenthesnow
beginstomeltthanthealbedodrops.

SeaIceFractionandAbsorbedSolarRadiationovertheArcticOcean

TheamountofArcticseaiceduringthesummerisbeginningtodecreasemakingscientist
concernedbecausetheregionisexperiencingalbedodecline.TheArcticsolarradiation
absorptionsince2000increasedbyfivepercentinthespanofthreemonths.Therateofof
theentireArcticoceanabsorbedsolarradiationisestimated10wattspersquaremeter.The
regionisshowincreasinglysignsofclimatechangethananyotherEarthregion.Onesigns
isairtemperaturewarmingattwotothreetimestherateoftherestoftheplaned.Also,the
13percentdeclineperdecadeofSeptemberseaicearea.

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