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Artificial Intelligence: Example

The document discusses first-order logic (FOL) and how it represents information. FOL adds relations, variables, and quantifiers to propositional logic (PL) to more concisely represent concepts involving individuals, properties, and relations. It introduces objects, relations, properties, functions, constants, predicates, terms, and quantified/complex sentences as the basic elements of FOL. Quantifiers like "forall" and "there exists" allow statements about individuals without naming them. The scope and connections between universal and existential quantifiers are also covered.

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71 views7 pages

Artificial Intelligence: Example

The document discusses first-order logic (FOL) and how it represents information. FOL adds relations, variables, and quantifiers to propositional logic (PL) to more concisely represent concepts involving individuals, properties, and relations. It introduces objects, relations, properties, functions, constants, predicates, terms, and quantified/complex sentences as the basic elements of FOL. Quantifiers like "forall" and "there exists" allow statements about individuals without naming them. The scope and connections between universal and existential quantifiers are also covered.

Uploaded by

Simanta Bordoloi
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© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Artificial Intelligence

Lecture 11
Shyamanta M Hazarika Computer Sc & Engineering Tezpur University

Example
Consider the problem of representing the following information:
Every person is mortal. Confucius is a person. Confucius is mortal.

How can these sentences be represented so that we can infer the third sentence from the first two?

Example
In PL we have to create propositional symbols to stand for all or part of each sentence. For example, we might have:

P = person; Q = mortal; R = Confucius


The above 3 sentences are represented as:

P Q; R P; R Q
we needed an explicit symbol, R, to represent an individual, Confucius, who is a member of the classes person and mortal To represent other individuals we must introduce separate symbols for each one, with some way to represent the fact that all individuals who are people are also mortal

PL is a weak language
Hard to identify individuals
(e.g., Mary, 3) ;

Cant directly talk about properties of individuals or relations between individuals


(e.g., Bill is tall)

Generalizations, patterns, regularities cant easily be represented


(e.g., all triangles have 3 sides)

PL is a weak language
First-Order Logic (abbreviated FOL or FOPC) is expressive enough to concisely represent this kind of information

FOL adds relations, variables, and quantifiers, e.g.,


Every elephant is gray

x (elephant(x) gray(x))
There is a white alligator

x (alligator(X) ^ white(X))

First-order logic
First-order logic (FOL) models the world in terms of
Objects, which are things with individual identities Properties of objects that distinguish them from other objects Relations that hold among sets of objects Functions, which are a subset of relations where there is only one value for any given input

Examples:
Objects: Students, lectures, companies, cars ... Relations: Brother-of, bigger-than, outside, part-of, has-color, occurs-after, owns, visits, precedes, ... Properties: blue, oval, even, large, ... Functions: father-of, best-friend, second-half, onemore-than ...

User provides
Constant symbols, which represent individuals in the world

Mary 3 Green
Function symbols, which map individuals to individuals

father-of(Mary) = John color-of(Sky) = Blue


Predicate symbols, which map individuals to truth values

greater(5,3) green(Grass) color(Grass, Green)

FOL Provides
Variable symbols E.g., x, y, foo Connectives Same as in PL: not (), and (), or (), implies (), if and only if (biconditional ) Quantifiers Universal x or (Ax) Existential x or (Ex)

Quantifiers
Universal quantification (x)P(x) means that P holds for all values of x in the domain associated with that variable E.g., (x) dolphin(x) mammal(x) Existential quantification ( x)P(x) means that P holds for some value of x in the domain associated with that variable E.g., ( x) mammal(x) lays-eggs(x) Permits one to make a statement about some object without naming it

Sentences from terms and atoms


A term (denoting a real-world individual) is a constant symbol, a variable symbol, or an n-place function of n terms.
x and f(x1, ..., xn) are terms, where each xi is a term. A term with no variables is a ground term

An atomic sentence (which has value true or false) is an nplace predicate of n terms A complex sentence is formed from atomic sentences connected by the logical connectives:
P, PQ, PQ, PQ, PQ where P and Q are sentences

A quantified sentence adds quantifiers and A well-formed formula (wff) is a sentence containing no free variables. That is, all variables are bound by universal or existential quantifiers.
(x)P(x,y) has x bound as a universally quantified variable, but y is free.

Quantifiers
Universal quantifiers are often used with implies to form rules:
(x) student(x) smart(x) means All students are smart

Universal quantification is rarely used to make blanket statements about every individual in the world:
(x)student(x)smart(x) means Everyone in the world is a student and is smart

Existential quantifiers are usually used with and to specify a list of properties about an individual:
(x) student(x) smart(x) means There is a student who is smart

A common mistake is to represent this English sentence as the FOL sentence:


(x) student(x) smart(x)

Quantifier Scope
Switching the order of universal quantifiers does not change the meaning:

(x)(y)P(x,y) (y)(x) P(x,y)


Similarly, you can switch the order of existential quantifiers:

(x)(y)P(x,y) (y)(x) P(x,y)


Switching the order of universals and existentials does change meaning:

Everyone likes someone : (x)(y) likes(x,y) Someone is liked by everyone : (y)(x) likes(x,y)

Connections between All and Exists


Relate and using De Morgans laws:

(x) P(x) (x) P(x) (x) P (x) P(x) (x) P(x) (x) P(x) (x) P(x) (x) P(x)

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