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Vector Arithmetic and Geometry

In applied mathematics and physics and engineering, vectors often have two
components to represent for example planar motion or more likely have
three components to represent the three-dimensional world. In this document
we consider some of the geometrical properties and arithmetic of vectors. For
futher reinforcement or development, an Excel spreadsheet carrying out the
vector operations and including vector operations in VBA is available1,
alternatively a set of Fortran codes for the same purpose are also available 2 and a
set of Matlab/Freemat/Octave codes are available.
Vectors
The physical meaning of a vector is that it is a quantity that has both magnitude
and direction. This is often diagrammatically-represented by an arrow, its angle
representing the direction and its length representing its magnitude. A vector in
a two-dimensional system a vector can be resolved into two perpendicular
components; one in the x-direction and one in the y-direction. A vector in a three
dimensional system a vector can be resolved into three perpendicular
components; one in the x, y and z-directions.
Vector addition and subtraction for the physical vectors considered in this
document follow the same rules as in matrix arithmetic 3; it simply involves the
component-wise addition or subtraction.

Vectors are often written in bold or are underlined and in this document we use
the former (the latter is often used in handwriting where it is more difficult to
express and distinuish bold characters). For example we may write =
1
( ). Some of the properties and vectors are outlined in this document. A more
5
thorough coveage can be found in Cartesian components of vectors4

GEOM.xlsm spreadsheet of vector operations and user-guide

Fortran codes for vector geometry: 2D- GEOM2D.FOR and 3D GEOM3D.FOR and test codes GEOM2D_T.FOR and
GEOM3D_T.FOR
3 Matrix Arithmetic
4 Mathcentre: Cartesian components of vectors document and video
1
2

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Points and Vectors

The most natural method of representing a point is to use Cartesian
coordinates5. In two dimensions any point in the plane can be represented by
two co-ordinates, usually an x-co-ordinate and a y-coordinate. For example the
point P1=(2,4) has an x-co-ordinate equal to 2 and a y-coordinate equal to 4. If
P2=(3,9) is another point then the line connecting P1 to P2 is a vector, having
magnitude (size or length of the line) and direction (the direction that follows
the line from P1 to P2), and it written 1 2 (athough a variety of other notations
exist, such as the bar being replaced by an arrow).
An alternative common notation is through utilising the unit directional vectors
and , where is the unit directional vector in the x-direction and is the unit
directional vector in the y-direction;
1
0
= ( ) and = ( ) .
0
1
Example 2
Let P1=(2,4) and P2=(3,9) be points on the x-y plane.
The vector represents 3-2=1 units in the x-direction and 9-4=5 units in
the y-direction, and can therefore be written
1
1 2 = ( ).
5
We may also write 1 2 = + 5 .
In three dimensions any point can be respresented by three coordinates an x
coordinate a y-coordinate and a z-coordinate. In three dimensions , and
are the unit directional vectors:
1
0
0
= (0) .
= (0) , = (1) and
0
0
1
Example 3
Let P1=(1,-3,2) be a point in 3D (P1 has an x-co-ordinate equal to 1 a ycoordinate equal to -3 and a z-coordinate equal to 2). Similarly, if
P2=(3,-5,7) is another point then the line connecting P1 to P2 is a vector
and it written 1 2 and
2
.
1 2 = (2) = 2 2 + 5
5
5

Cartesian Coordinates

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The magnitude of a vector

1
The size or magnitude of a two-dimensional vector is defined by: || = |( )| =
2

1 2 + 2 2 , which results on the application of Pythagoras theorem 6. This also

extends to three dimensions: || = (1 )2 + (2 )2 + (3 )2 . In terms of vector
norms the the magnitude of a vector is equivalent to its 2-norm7.
Example 4
1
1
The vector ( ) has magnitude |( )| = 12 + 52 = 26 = 5.099 (3d. p. ). .
5
5

Examples 5
2
2
The magnitude of the vector (2) is |(2)| = 22 + (2)2 + 52 =
5
5
33 = 5.745 (3d. p. ).
7
7
The magnitude of the vector (1) is |(1)| = 72 + 12 + 32 = 59 =
3
3
7.681 (3d. p. ).

Unit vectors
A vector is said to be a unit vector is its magnitude is one. For example the
are unit vectors.
directonal vectors , and
Example 6
0.8
0.8
) has magnitude |( )| = 0.82 + 0.62 = 0.64 + 0.36 =
0.6
0.6
1 = 1 and hence it is a unit vector. .
The vector (

Example 7
2
2
1
1
1
The magnitude of the vector 7 (3) is 7 |(3)| = 7 22 + 32 + 62 =
6
6
1
1
4 + 9 + 36 = 7 49 = 1 and hence it is a unit vector.
7

6
7

Trigonometry
Vector Norm and Normalisation

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A vector can be transformed into a unit vector with the same direction but with
unit magnitude by dividing the components by the vectors magnitude; for any

vector , || is a unit vector.

Example 8
1
From Example 4 it was found that the vector ( ) has magnitude 26. The
5
1
1
0.1961
0.1961
vector 26 ( ) = (
) has magnitude |(
)| =

5
0.9806
0.9806
0.19612 + 0.98062 = 0.03845 + 0.9615 = 1 = 1 (working to 4 d. p. ).
.
Distance between two points
The geometrical distance between two points P1 and P2 is the magnitude of the
vector 1 2; |12 | .
Example 9
Let P1=(2,4) and P2=(3,9) be points on the x-y plane. Following on from
1
Example 1, the vector linking the two points is 1 2 = ( ). From Example 4
5
1
it was shown that |( )| = 26 = 5.099 (3d. p. ) and hence this is also the
5
distance between the two points.

Example 10
Following on from Example 3, P1=(1,-3,2) and P2=(3,-5,7) are points in
2
three dimensions and 1 2 = (2) . In Example 5 it was shown that is
5
2
|(2)| = 33 = 5.745 (3d. p. ), and hence this is the distance
5
between the points.

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Scalar or Dot Product

The scalar or dot product of two vectors and is written . is the sum of the
component-wise products; . = 1 1 + 2 2 in two dimensions and . =
1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 in three dimensions.

The dot product of two vectors in the same direction is equal to the product of
their magnitudes. The dot product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.

In general
. = |||| cos
where is the angle between the vectors and . For further information on the
properties of the scalar product see The Scalar Product8. In the following
examples the angle between two vectors in two dimensions and three dimensios
is calculated and the result is compared to the angle obtained through the
application of the cosine formula to a triangle9.

8
9

Mathcentre: The Scalar Product document and video

Mathcentre: Triangle Formulae document and video

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Example 13
1
2
The cosine of the angle between the vectors = ( ) and = ( ) is
5
3
.
||||

1
2
( ).( )
13
5 3
1
2 =2613
|( )| |( )|
5
3

. Hence the angle is

2

or 1350.

Let us compare this with the angle that is obtained by the cosine rule. The
length of the vector a is || = 26 , the length of the vector b is || = 13
and the length of the remaining vector is | | = 65 . Applying the
cosine rule:
2

(65) = (26) + (13) 22613 cos .

Hence
65 = 26 + 13 22613 cos

and

cos =

13
2613

, as before .

Example 14
7
2
(
)
(
The cosine of the angle between the vectors = 2 and = 1) is
5
3
2
7
(2).(1)
27
3
5
7 =3359
2
|(2)||(1)|
5
3

= 0.6119. Hence the angle is 0.9123 radians (4d.p.) or

52.270 (2 d.p.).
Let us compare this with the angle that is obtained by the cosine rule. The
length of the vector a is || = 33 , the length of the vector b is || = 59
and the length of the remaining vector is | | = 38 . Applying the
cosine rule:
2

(38) = (33) + (59) 233 59cos .

Hence
and

38 = 33 + 59 233 59cos
cos =

27
3359

, as before .

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Vector or Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors results in a vector that is perpendicular to the
plane of the two original vectors. The cross product therefore only makes sense
in three dimensions (in practical setting). Useful definitions and uses of the cross
product are outlined in this sections, for a more thorough coverage see The
Vector Product10.
For two vectors and , the cross product is written and is defined as

= |1
1

2
2

3 | ,
3

using the notation of the method for finding the determinant of a 33 matrix11,
or by
(1 2 2 1 ).
= (2 3 3 2 ) + (3 1 1 3 ) +

A further definition of the vector product is as follows

,
= |||| sin
is a unit vector that is perpendicular
where is the angle between and and
to both and (or perpendicular to the plane occupied by and ), as
illustrated in the following diagram.

Note that the direction of , as defined above, is ambiguous. The direction is

upward if the movement from to is in the counter-clockwise direction, as
illustrated in the diagram.

10
11

Mathcentre: The Vector Product document and video

Mathcentre: Determinants document

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Example 15
7
2
(
)
(
Let = 2 and = 1) be two vectors,
5
3

= |2 2 5|
7 1 3
(2 1 (2) 7)
= ((2) 3 5 1) + (5 7 2 3) +
11
= ( 29 ) .
= 11 + 29 + 16
16
To show that is perpendicular to and , let us find the dot products.
[Note the dot product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.]
7
11
( ). = ( 29 ) . (1) = (11) 7 + 29 1 + 16 3
16
3
= 77 + 29 + 48 = 0.
11
2
( ). = ( 29 ) . (2) = (11) 2 + 29 (2) + 16 5
16
5
= 22 58 + 80 = 0.
From the equation above, the magnitude of is equal to |||| sin
| | = |||| sin ,
which is also equal to the area of the parallelogram illustrated in the following
diagram.

In order to show this let us view the parallelogram as follows, with the vector
viewed on a horizontal axis and the vectors replaced by their lengths || and ||.
||

|| sin

||

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The height of the parallelogram is || sin and hence the area of the
parallelogram is |||| sin .
Application: Normal to a line between two points in 2D
Consider the line joining two 2-points 1 to 2 . Let be the vector linking 1 to 2
2
2
; = 1 2 . The normal to the line is ( ) to the left of the line and ( ) to the
1
1
2
1 2
1
right. The unit normal to the left of the line is || ( ) and to right it is || ( ) .
1
1
Note that the normal may also be defined in the opposite direction, but in this
case the normal lies to point to the left of the vector 1 2
normal to the left

normal to the right

Example 16
Let 1 = (2,4) and 2 = (3,9) be two points. The vector
1 2 is equal to =
1
5
( ), as shown in Example 2. Hence the normal to 1 2 is ( ) to the left
5
1
5
and ( ) to the right,as illustrated in the following diagram.
1

(3,9)
(

5
)
1
5
( )
1
(2,4)

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Application: Area of a triangle joining three points in 3D

Earlier, the following formula was stated
| | = |||| sin ,
which is also equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by a and b. However,
if we halve that area as follows, then it becomes the area of a triangle. Let be
the vector that joins two points 1and 2 so that =
1 2 and let be the vector
that joins two points 1 and 3 so that =
1 3 , as illustrated in the following
diagram.
3

Hence the area of the triangle joining the points 1 , 2 and 3 is

1
2

| |.

Note that this is also equal to 2 |||| sin and this fits in with the formula for the
area of a triangle12.
Example 17
In this example the area of the triangle with vertices P1=(1,-3, 2), P2=(3,-5,
7) and P3=(8,-2, 5) is determined.
7
2
Let =
1 2 and =
1 3 then = (2) and = (1).
5
3
11
Hence = ( 29 ) , as shown in Example 14. The area of the triangle
16
1
1
joining the three points is | | = (11)2 + 292 + 162
2

= 2 121 + 841 + 256 = 1218 = 17.45 (2 d. p. ).

1

In order to verify this result let us find 2 |||| sin . From Examples 5,
|| = 33 and || = 59 and from Example 14 = 52.270. Hence
1
2

12

|||| sin = 5.745 7.681 sin 52.27 = 17.45 (2 d. p. ).

2

Mathcentre: Triangle Formulae document