VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

12.2
Vectors

In this section, we will learn about:

Vectors and their applications.

12.2 (REST) AND 12.3 FROM CET

COMPONENTS

The terminal point of a has coordinates of the

form (a1, a2) or (a1, a2, a3).

 This depends on whether our coordinate system

is two- or three-dimensional.
COMPONENTS

These coordinates are called

the components of a and we write:

a = ‹a1, a2› or a = ‹a1, a2, a3›

COMPONENTS

For instance, the vectors shown here are

all equivalent to the vector OP  3, 2 whose
terminal point is P(3, 2).
COMPONENTS

We can think of all these geometric vectors

as representations of the algebraic vector
a = ‹3, 2›.
POSITION VECTOR

In three dimensions, the vector

a = OP = ‹a1, a2, a3›
is the position vector of the point P(a1, a2, a3).
COMPONENTS
Let’s consider any other representation AB
of a, where the initial point is A(x1, y1, z1) and the
terminal point is B(x2, y2, z2).
a = ‹x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1›
COMPONENTS Example 3
Find the vector represented by the directed
line segment with initial point A(2, –3, 4) and
terminal point B(–2, 1, 1).

 By Equation 1, the vector corresponding to AB

is:
a = ‹–2 –2, 1 – (–3), 1 – 4› = ‹–4, 4, –3›
LENGTH OF VECTOR

The magnitude or length of the vector v

is the length of any of its representations.

 It is denoted by the symbol |v| or║v║.

Length of vectors:

a = ‹a1, a2› | a | a  a2 2
1 2

a = ‹a1, a2, a3› | a | a  a  a

2
1
2
2
2
3
 ADDING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

To add algebraic vectors, we add

their components.
if a = ‹a1, a2›
and b = ‹b1, b2›,

a + b = ‹ a 1 + b 1, a 2 + b 2›
MULTIPLYING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

So, to multiply a vector by a scalar,

we multiply each component by that
scalar.
2-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

If a = ‹a1, a2› and b = ‹b1, b2›, then

a + b = ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›

a – b = ‹a1 – b1 , a2 – b2›

ca = ‹ca1, ca2›
3-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

Similarly, for 3-D vectors,

 a1 , a2 , a3   b1 , b2 , b3    a1  b1 , a2  b2 , a3  b3 

 a1 , a2 , a3   b1 , b2 , b3    a1  b1 , a2  b2 , a3  b3 

c a1 , a2 , a3    ca1 , ca2 , ca3 

ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

If a = ‹4, 0, 3› and b = ‹–2, 1, 5›,

find: a – b, 2a + 5b
a  b =  4, 0, 3  2, 1, 5
=  4  (  2), 0  1, 3  5
= 6, 1, 2

2a + 5b = 2 4, 0, 3  52, 1, 5
= 8, 0, 6  10, 5, 25
= 2, 5, 31
COMPONENTS

We denote:

 V2 as the set of all 2-D vectors

 V3 as the set of all 3-D vectors

COMPONENTS

More generally, we will later need to

consider the set Vn of all n-dimensional
vectors.

 An n-dimensional vector is an ordered n-tuple

a = ‹a1, a2, …, an›

where a1, a2, …, an are real numbers that are

called the components of a.
COMPONENTS

Addition and scalar multiplication are

defined in terms of components just as
for the cases n = 2 and n = 3.
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

If a, b, and c are vectors in Vn and c and d

are scalars, then

1. a + b = b + a 2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3. a + 0 = a 4. a + (  a) = 0
5. c(a + b) = ca + cb 6. (c + d )a = ca + da
7. (cd )a = c(da) 8. 1a = a
VECTORS IN V3

Three vectors in V3 play

a special role.

Let
i = ‹1, 0, 0›
j = ‹0, 1, 0›
k = ‹0, 0, 1›
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

These vectors i, j, and k are called

the standard basis vectors.
 They have length 1 and point in the directions
of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

Similarly, in
two dimensions,
we define:
i = ‹1, 0›
j = ‹0, 1›
 STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

If a = ‹a1, a2, a3›, then we can write:

a   a1 , a2 , a3 
  a1 , 0, 0  0, a2 , 0  0, 0, a3 
 a1 1, 0, 0  a2  0,1, 0  a3  0, 0,1

a  a1i  a2 j  a3k

Example:
‹1, –2, 6› = i – 2j + 6k
COMPONENTS Example 5

If a = i + 2j – 3k and b = 4i + 7k,
express the vector 2a + 3b in terms
of i, j, and k.

2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j – 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)

= 2i + 4j – 6k + 12i + 21k
= 14i + 4j + 15k
UNIT VECTOR

A unit vector is a vector whose

length is 1.
 For instance, i, j, and k are all unit vectors.

In general, if a ≠ 0, then the unit vector

that has the same direction as a is:
1 a
| u | a
|a| |a|
UNIT VECTORS Example 6

Find the unit vector in the direction of

the vector 2i – j – 2k.
Vector length:

| 2i  j  2k | 22  (1) 2  (2) 2
 9 3

The unit vector with the same direction is:

1
3 (2i  j  2k )  23 i  13 j  23 k
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

12.3
The Dot Product

In this section, we will learn about:

Various concepts related to the dot product
and its applications.
THE DOT PRODUCT Definition 1

If a = ‹a1, a2, a3› and b = ‹b1, b2, b3›, then

the dot product of a and b is the number a • b
given by:
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

The result is not a vector. It is a real

number, that is, a scalar.

For this reason, the dot product is sometimes

called the scalar product (or inner product).
DOT PRODUCT

Though Definition 1 is given for three-

dimensional (3-D) vectors, the dot product
of two-dimensional vectors is defined in
a similar fashion:

‹a1, a2› ∙ ‹b1, b2› = a1b1 + a2b2

DOT PRODUCT Example 1
‹2, 4› ∙ ‹3, – 1› = 2(3) + 4(–1) = 2

‹–1, 7, 4› ∙ ‹6, 2, –½› = (–1)(6) + 7(2) + 4(–½)

=6

(i + 2j – 3k) ∙ (2j – k) = 1(0) + 2(2) + (–3)(–1)

= 7
PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT Theorem 2

If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and c is

a scalar, then

1. a  a =|a|
2

2. a  b  b  a
3. a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
4. (ca)  b  c(a  b)  a  (cb)
5. 0  a  0
GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION

The dot product a • b can be given

a geometric interpretation in terms of
the angle θ between a and b.

 This is defined to be the angle between

the representations of a and b that start
at the origin, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION

In other words, θ is the angle between

the line segments OA and OB here.

 Note that if a and b

are parallel vectors,
then θ = 0 or θ = π.
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Theorem 3

If θ is the angle between the vectors

a and b, then

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ
DOT PRODUCT Example 2

If the vectors a and b have lengths 4

and 6, and the angle between them is π/3,
find a ∙ b.

 Using Theorem 3, we have:

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos(π/3)
=4∙6∙½
= 12
DOT PRODUCT
The formula in Theorem 3 also enables
us to find the angle between two vectors.

If θ is the angle between the nonzero

vectors a and b, then
a b
cos  
| a || b |
 NONZERO VECTORS Example 3

Find the angle between the vectors

a = ‹2, 2, –1› and b = ‹5, –3, 2›

| a | 2  2  ( 1)
2 2 2
3
and
| b | 5  ( 3)  2
2 2 2
 38

a ∙ b = 2(5) + 2(–3) +(–1)(2) = 2

NONZERO VECTORS Example 3

Thus, from Corollary 6, we have:

ab 2
cos   
| a || b | 3 38
 So, the angle between a and b is:

 2 
  cos 
1
  1.46 (or 84 )
 3 38 
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS
Two nonzero vectors a and b are called
perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between
them is θ = π/2.

Then, Theorem 3 gives:

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos(π/2) = 0

 Conversely, if a ∙ b = 0, then cos θ = 0;

so, θ = π/2.
ZERO VECTORS

The zero vector 0 is considered to be

perpendicular to all vectors.

Two vectors a and b are orthogonal

if and only if

a∙b=0
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS Example 4

Show that 2i + 2j – k is perpendicular

to 5i – 4j + 2k.

 (2i + 2j – k) ∙ (5i – 4j + 2k)

= 2(5) + 2(–4) + (–1)(2)
=0

 So, these vectors are perpendicular

by Theorem 7.
DOT PRODUCT

In the extreme case where a and b

point in exactly the same direction,
we have θ = 0.

 So, cos θ = 1 and

a ∙ b = |a||b|
DOT PRODUCT

If a and b point in exactly opposite

directions, then θ = π.

 So, cos θ = –1 and

a ∙ b = –|a| |b|
DIRECTION ANGLES

The direction angles of a nonzero vector a

are the angles α, β, and γ (in the interval
[0, π]) that a makes with the positive x-, y-,
and z-axes.
DIRECTION COSINES

The cosines of these direction angles—cos α,

cos β, and cos γ—are called the direction
cosines of the vector a.
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 8

Using Corollary 6 with b replaced by i,

we obtain:

ai a1
cos   
| a || i | | a |
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES

This can also be seen directly from

the figure.
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 9

Similarly, we also have:

a2 a3
cos   cos  
|a| |a|
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 10

By squaring the expressions

in Equations 8 and 9 and adding,
we see that:

cos   cos   cos   1

2 2 2
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES

We can also use Equations 8 and 9

to write:
a = ‹a1, a2, a3›
= ‹|a| cos α, |a| cos β, |a| cos γ›
= |a|‹cos α, cos β, cos γ›
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 11

Therefore,

1
a  cos  , cos  , cos 
|a|

 This states that the direction cosines of a

are the components of the unit vector in
the direction of a.
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Example 5

Find the direction angles of the vector

a = ‹1, 2, 3›

 | a | 1  2  3  14
2 2 2

 So, Equations 8 and 9 give:

1 2 3
cos  cos  cos  
14 14 14
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Example 5

 Therefore,
 1 
  cos 
1
  74
 14 
1  2 
  cos    58
 14 
1  3 
  cos    37
 14 
PROJECTIONS

The figure shows representations PQ and PR

of two vectors a and b with the same initial
point P.
PROJECTIONS

Let S be the foot of the perpendicular

from R to the line containing PQ .
VECTOR PROJECTION

Then, the vector with representation PS is

called the vector projection of b onto a and
is denoted by proja b.
 You can think of it as a shadow of b.
SCALAR PROJECTION

The scalar projection of b onto a

(also called the component of b along a)
is defined to be the signed magnitude
of the vector projection.
PROJECTIONS

This is the number |b| cos θ, where θ

is the angle between a and b.

 This is denoted
by compa b.

 Observe that
it is negative
if π/2 < θ ≤ π.
PROJECTIONS

The equation
a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|(|b| cos θ)
shows that:

 The dot product of a and b can be interpreted

as the length of a times the scalar projection of
b onto a.
a ∙ b = |a| compa b
PROJECTIONS

Since
a b a
| b | cos    b
|a| |a|

the component of b along a can be

computed by taking the dot product of b
with the unit vector in the direction of a.
PROJECTIONS

We summarize these ideas

as follows.
PROJECTIONS

Scalar projection of b onto a: a b

compa b 
|a|
Vector projection of b onto a:
 a b  a a b
proja b     2a
 |a| | a| |a|
 Notice that the vector projection
is the scalar projection times
the unit vector in the direction of a.
PROJECTIONS Example 6

Find the scalar and vector projections of:

b = ‹1, 1, 2› onto a = ‹–2 , 3, 1›

PROJECTIONS Example 6

Since
| a | (2)  3  1  14
2 2 2

the scalar projection of b onto a is:

a  b (2)(1)  3(1)  1(2)

compa b  
|a| 14
3

14
PROJECTIONS Example 6

The vector projection is that scalar projection

times the unit vector in the direction of a:

3 a 3
proja b   a
14 | a | 14
3 9 3
  , ,
7 14 14
APPLICATIONS OF PROJECTIONS

One use of projections occurs

in physics in calculating work.
CALCULATING WORK

In Section 6.4, we defined the work done

by a constant force F in moving an object
through a distance d as:
W = Fd

 This, however, applies only when the force is

directed along the line of motion of the object.
CALCULATING WORK

However, suppose that the constant force

is a vector F  PR pointing in some other
direction, as shown.
CALCULATING WORK

If the force moves the object from

P to Q, then the displacement vector
is D  PQ .
CALCULATING WORK

The work done by this force is defined to be

the product of the component of the force
along D and the distance moved:
W = (|F| cos θ)|D|
CALCULATING WORK Equation 12

However, from Theorem 3,

we have:
W = |F||D| cos θ
=F∙D
CALCULATING WORK

Therefore, the work done by a constant

force F is:

 The dot product F ∙ D, where D is

the displacement vector.
CALCULATING WORK Example 7

A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along

a horizontal path by a constant force of 70 N.
The handle of the wagon is held at an angle
of 35° above the horizontal.

 Find the work

done by the force.
CALCULATING WORK Example 7

Suppose F and D are the force and

displacement vectors, as shown.
CALCULATING WORK Example 7

Then, the work done is:

W = F ∙ D = |F||D| cos 35°

= (70)(100) cos 35°
≈ 5734 N∙m
= 5734 J
CALCULATING WORK Example 8

A force is given by a vector F = 3i + 4j + 5k

and moves a particle from the point P(2, 1, 0)
to the point Q(4, 6, 2).

 Find the work done.

CALCULATING WORK Example 8

The displacement vector is D  PQ  2,5, 2

So, by Equation 12, the work done is:
W=F∙D
= ‹3, 4, 5› ∙ ‹2, 5, 2›
= 6 + 20 + 10 = 36

 If the unit of length is meters and the magnitude

of the force is measured in newtons, then the work
done is 36 joules.