6.

Vectors and Complex Numbers

Contents

1 Vectors and Coordinate Systems 2

1.1 Plane Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Vector Addition and Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Unit Vector Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Vector Length or Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.5 Polar Coordinates and Polar Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.6 Coordinate Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.7 Definition and Properties of the Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.8 Dot Product and Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Complex Numbers 14

2.1 Definition of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 Addition of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3 Multiplication of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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 2.4 Complex Conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.5 Complex Reciprocal and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.6 Geometric Interpretation of Complex Multiplication and Division . . . . . . 18

2.7 Complex Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1 Vectors and Coordinate Systems

We will examine vectors, mostly in the two-dimensional xy-plane. For vector calculus, we
first need the concept of a coordinate system. Primarily, we will deal with so-called
right-handed Cartesian coordinate systems. These include, for instance, the standard
xy-coordinate system and the xyz-coordinate system.

1.1 Plane Vectors

(Plane) vectors are essentially nothing more than points in the coordinate system. When
we talk about the plane and plane vectors, this means that the point (x, y) in the xy-plane
is identified with the vector x = (x, y). Later, vectors will be denoted for computational

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reasons as column vectors and without commas
 
x
x= .
y

Generally, in technical and scientific literature, vectors are written in bold. Sometimes, an
overline x̄ or an arrow ⃗x is used, with or without bolding, and sometimes other notations
such as x̂ are used. When writing by hand, the easiest way is usually to write the vector in
ordinary letters but with an overline or arrow, i.e., x̄ or ⃗x. Note that the notations are just
typography, i.e., they don’t change the underlying concepts. Sometimes special notations are
omitted altogether, and vectors are denoted simply with ordinary letters, for example, vector
x.

The plane/2D coordinate system is often denoted by R2 , and the 3D space/coordinate system
correspondingly by R3 . Plane vectors might be, for instance, x = (1, 2) or y = (666, 999).
Vectors can be visualized graphically by identifying them with vector arrows. For example,
the vectors w = (−3/2, 1), u = (1, 1), and v = (2, 0) can be represented graphically

Sometimes it is illustrative to denote vectors using so-called unit vectors. Unit vectors are
vectors in the direction of the x and y axes with a length of 1, i.e., the vectors (1, 0) and
(0, 1). In three-dimensional coordinate systems, the unit vectors are correspondingly (1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1), and similarly in higher-dimensional coordinate systems. Generally, the
unit vector in the direction of the x-axis is denoted by

⃗x = (1, 0) or ⃗i = (1, 0),

the unit vector in the direction of the y-axis by

⃗y = (0, 1) or ⃗j = (0, 1),

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and in the three-dimensional case, the unit vector in the direction of the z-axis by

⃗z = (0, 0, 1) or ⃗k = (0, 0, 1)

Graphically represented, the unit vectors are

1.2 Vector Addition and Scaling

Vectors can be added together. However, this is only possible if the dimensions of the vectors
being added are the same, i.e., a plane vector and a 3D vector cannot be added unless the
plane vector (x, y) is identified with the 3D vector (x, y, 0). Vector addition is performed by

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adding the components, i.e., if u = (x1 , y1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 ), then

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).

For example, if u = (1, 1) and v = (2, 3), then

u + v = (1 + 2, 1 + 3) = (3, 4).

It is obvious that vector addition is commutative and associative, i.e., x + y = y + x, and

x + y + z can be grouped freely or not grouped at all.

The opposite vector of a vector x = (x, y) is −x = (−x, −y). Vector subtraction means
adding the opposite vector of the vector to be subtracted. Thus,

x − y = x + (−y).

A vector can also be multiplied by a scalar, i.e., an ordinary number. Sometimes this is called
scaling. The multiplication is defined as

ax = (ax, ay), a ∈ R.

Multiplying a vector by a scalar follows the distributive law, i.e.,

a(x + y) = ax + ay.

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1.3 Unit Vector Representation

With unit vectors, every vector can be expressed in a possibly familiar form a⃗i + b⃗j. This is
sometimes called the coordinate representation. For example,

(5, 6) = 5⃗i + 6⃗j, (0, −2) = 0⃗i − 2⃗j = −2⃗j.

(1, 3, −2) = ⃗i + 3⃗j − 2⃗k

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In general:
(x, y) = x⃗i + y⃗j
(x, y, z) = x⃗i + y⃗j + z⃗k

Example: Let x = (4, 2) and y = (−1, 3). Calculate the vector z = 5x − 2y. Using the
coordinate representation, we get

z = 5x − 2y
 
= 5 · 4⃗i + 2⃗j − 2 · (−⃗i + 3⃗j)
= 20⃗i + 10⃗j + 2⃗i − 6⃗j
= 22⃗i + 4⃗j = (22, 4).

1.4 Vector Length or Norm

The length ∥x∥ or norm of the vector x = (x, y) is obtained using the Pythagorean theorem
by examining the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (x, 0), and (0, y).

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Now, using the Pythagorean theorem, we can state that the norm of the vector x is
p
∥x∥ = x2 + y 2 .

For a 3D vector x = (x, y, z), the norm is similarly (by applying the Pythagorean theorem
twice) p
∥x∥ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

For example, √
∥2⃗i − ⃗j∥ =
p
22 + (−1)2 = 5
√
∥2⃗i − ⃗j + 4⃗k∥ = 22 + (−1)2 + 42 = 21
p

1.5 Polar Coordinates and Polar Representation

The Cartesian vertical coordinate system is not the only way to indicate which vector is
which. Generally, to indicate and precisely distinguish vectors, as many identifiers are needed
as there are dimensions, i.e., two numbers are always needed to describe a 2D vector, three

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numbers for a 3D vector, etc. In the 2D case, a convenient method for many purposes is the
so-called polar representation and polar coordinate system. Instead of horizontal and
vertical coordinates, it indicates the length or norm of the vector and the (phase) angle
of the vector or the point on the plane.

In the polar coordinate system, the coordinates of the vector x are given in the form x = (r, θ),
where r is the length of the vector and θ is the (phase) angle. If there is a risk of confusion,
different brackets can be used for the polar coordinate system, for example, x = ⟨r, θ⟩.
Instead of the letter θ (”theta”), sometimes another symbol is used, and the chosen symbol
does not have any deeper significance.

1.6 Coordinate Transformations

If the vector representation in the Cartesian coordinate system is known, the polar represen-
tation can be found by calculating the length and phase angle of the vector. For example, if
x = (2, −4), then √ √
∥x∥ = 22 + 42 = 20 ≈ 4,4721.
The point is located in the lower right quadrant, so the phase angle is

2π − arctan(4/2) ≈ 5,1761 ≈ 296,569◦ .

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So,
x ≈ ⟨4,47, 5,18⟩ ≈ ⟨4,47, 296,57◦ ⟩.

If the representation of the vector x = ⟨r, θ⟩ is known in the polar coordinate system, the
Cartesian representation x = (x, y) can be found by examining the right triangle with vertices
(0, 0), (x, 0), and (x, y).

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In this case, the length of the hypotenuse of the triangle is r, so from the definition of sine
and cosine, it follows that
x = r cos(θ) y = r sin(θ).

Example and Solution:

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It is also possible to find corresponding representations for 3D vectors, spherical and cylin-
drical coordinate systems, but they are notoriously difficult and will not be covered in
this course.

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1.7 Definition and Properties of the Dot Product

The dot product x · y of vectors x = (x1 , y1 ) and y = (x2 , y2 ) is calculated as

x · y = x1 x2 + y1 y2 ,

i.e., by multiplying the coordinates and summing them. For 3D vectors x = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
y = (x2 , y2 , z2 ), similarly,
x · y = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 ,
The dot product yields an ordinary number, which can be used, for example, to determine
whether the vectors are perpendicular to each other.

By calculation, it can be shown that the dot product satisfies

x·y =y·x
(ax) · y = a(x · y), a∈R
x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z

Additionally,
x · y = ∥x∥∥y∥ cos(α),
where α is the angle between the vectors x and y. This implies that vectors are perpendicular,
i.e., the angle between them is 90◦ or π/2, if and only if the dot product between the
vectors is 0!
Example 1.1. Calculate the dot product of the vectors x = ⃗i−2⃗j+5⃗k and y = −2⃗i+4⃗j+2⃗k.
We get
x · y = 1 · (−2) + (−2) · 4 + 5 · 2 = −2 − 8 + 10 = 0.
Since the dot product is zero, the vectors x and y are perpendicular to each other.

1.8 Dot Product and Polar Coordinates

The dot product of plane vectors can also be easily calculated using the polar coordinate
form of vectors x = ⟨r1 , θ1 ⟩ and y = ⟨r2 , θ2 ⟩ by using the formula

x · y = r1 r2 cos(θ2 − θ1 ).

This formula can be justified as follows:

If x = ⟨r1 , θ1 ⟩ and y = ⟨r2 , θ2 ⟩, then ∥x∥ = r1 , ∥y∥ = r2 , and the angle between the vectors
must be α = θ2 − θ1 . Thus,

x · y = x · y = ∥x∥∥y∥ cos(α) = r1 r2 cos(θ2 − θ1 ).

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Example 1.2. If x = ⟨3, 0⟩ and y = ⟨2, π/2⟩, the dot product is calculated as

x · y = 3 · 2 cos(π/2) = 0.

Notice that the vectors x and y are perpendicular.

2 Complex Numbers

2.1 Definition of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are a natural extension of the set of real numbers R, which allows for the
solution of a broader set of equations. For example, the equation

x2 + 1 = 0

is known to have no real solution. Let’s assume for a moment that it does. Using the
quadratic formula and some blind faith, we get
√
x2 + 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ x2 = −1 ⇐⇒ x = ± −1.

The problem is that such a number does not exist in the reals. Therefore, we must define a
new number that fits the solution. This is the imaginary unit i, which has the property

i2 = −1.

The issue with the previous approach is that it doesn’t really explain what complex numbers
actually are. A more illustrative interpretation can be obtained by identifying complex
numbers with points or vectors in the xy-plane. We denote a vector (x, y) now with an
unusual notation (without bold or arrows) as z = (x, y), and formally define

z = (x, y) = x + iy,

where i is the imaginary unit i = (0, 1).

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The complex plane, or the set of complex numbers C, consists of points z = x + iy, where
x and y are real numbers. The number x is called the real part of the complex number z
and the number y the imaginary part of the complex number. Often, we denote x = ℜz
and y = ℑz, or more crudely, x = Re z and y = Im z. With this interpretation, complex
numbers are merely plane vectors, oddly notated. The notation and the utility of complex
numbers will become clear later.

2.2 Addition of Complex Numbers

The addition of complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = x2 + iy2 = (x2 , y2 ) works
exactly like the addition of vectors. Thus,

z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ),

for example,
(7 + i) + (1 − 3i) = (7 + 1, 1 − 3) = (8, −2) = 8 − 2i.

The norm or modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is the length of

the vector (x, y), and is calculated as
p
|z| = x2 + y 2 ,

for example, p √
|2 − i| = 22 + (−1)2 = 5.
Complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = x2 + iy2 = (x2 , y2 ) are equal if and only
if their real and imaginary parts are equal, i.e., if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

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2.3 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Plane vectors do not have a predefined multiplication operation that produces another plane
vector. To define the multiplication of complex numbers, we need to use the form z = x + iy,
the property i2 = −1, and basic algebra. Thus, if z1 = x1 + iy1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = x2 + iy2 =
(x2 , y2 ), then

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + y1 x2 i + y1 y2 i2

= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + y1 x2 ).

For example,

(1 + i)(2 + i) = (2 + i) + (2i + i2 ) = 2 + i + 2i + (−1) = 1 + 3i.

Multiplication may seem confusing, but it also has a clear geometric interpretation. We will
return to this later.

2.4 Complex Conjugate

When the complex number z = x + iy is plotted in the plane and reflected about the x-axis,
the real axis, the complex conjugate z̄ = x−iy of the number z is obtained. The notation
z ∗ is also used.

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In particular, the conjugate of a real number, i.e., a complex number of the form z = (x, 0) =
x + 0i = x, is the number itself.

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2.5 Complex Reciprocal and Division

Using the conjugate, we get the equation

z̄
|z|2 = z z̄ ⇐⇒ z· = 1.
|z|2
This equation may seem confusing, but it allows us to define the reciprocal of a complex
number z = x + iy somewhat artificially and clumsily as
1 z̄
z −1 = = 2, |z| =
̸ 0,
z |z|
and the division of complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = x2 + iy2 = (x2 , y2 ) as
z1 z1 z¯2
= , |z2 | =
̸ 0.
z2 |z2 |2

2.6 Geometric Interpretation of Complex Multiplication and Di-

vision

Explaining the multiplication and division of complex numbers and their geometric interpre-
tation requires polar coordinates. Denote the polar coordinate representations of complex
numbers, i.e., points in the plane, as

z1 = ⟨r1 , θ1 ⟩, z2 = ⟨r2 , θ2 ⟩,

where r denotes the length of the vectors and θ the (phase) angle.

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Now r1 = |z1 | and r2 = |z2 |. By calculation, it can be shown that the product z = z1 z2 of
complex numbers z1 and z2 in polar coordinate form is

z = ⟨r1 r2 , θ1 + θ2 ⟩ = ⟨|z1 ||z2 |, θ1 + θ2 ⟩.

The result is a vector whose length is obtained by multiplying the lengths of the vectors
being multiplied, and the phase angle is obtained by adding the phase angles of the factors.

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Similarly, division of complex numbers is obtained by dividing the length of the dividend
vector by the length of the divisor vector, and subtracting the phase angle of the divisor from
the phase angle of the dividend, i.e., if z1 = ⟨r1 , θ1 ⟩ and z2 = ⟨r2 , θ2 ⟩, then
 
z1 r1
= , θ1 − θ2
z2 r2

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2.7 Complex Exponential Function

If the polar representation z = ⟨r, θ⟩ of a complex number z is known, the representation in

the form z = (x, y) = x + iy can be obtained similarly to plane vectors. Thus,
x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ),
so
z = r cos(θ) + ir sin(θ) = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) = |z|(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)).

The polar coordinate representation is closely related to the complex exponential func-

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tion, which is defined for a complex number z = x + iy by the formula

ez = ex+iy = ex (cos(y) + i sin(y)).

It can be shown that the exponential function defined this way satisfies the same properties
as the real exponential function, i.e.,

ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 , ez1 −z2 = ez1 /ez2 .

Using the exponential function, we get Euler’s formula

eiθ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ), θ ∈ R,

and from this the equation considered the most beautiful in mathematics

eiπ + 1 = 0.

Using Euler’s formula/exponential function, the polar form z = ⟨r, θ⟩ of a complex number
z can be written as z = |z|eiθ . For example,
D√ π E √ iπ
1+i= 2, = 2e 4 .
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