Report

Submitted to: MAM MAIMOONA

SUBMITTED BY: Adroiterz HAFSA IQBAL 136 ANAM MAQSOOD 134 AISHA FAREED 135
B.Sc. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (SESSION 2009-2013)
FIRST YEAR (1ST SEMESTER)

NFC INSITTUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Playing with the words is an art and we hereby admit that we are not that much successful at it. Thus we start with simple stuff that we are very much thankful to the Creator of Universe, the Most Gracious, and the Almighty who have the powers of Kun Fiyakon, for enabling us to successes in the hardest of battles, deepest of troubles and the deadliest of times, for to allowing us, for enlighten our paths in completion of this project. We will take the inspiration from the Holy Kalma-e-Tiyaba in which after the name of God comes the name of Greatest ever creation of God, who is none other than Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), to pay our humble thanks to him (PBUH), who is forever a Light that enlightens the darkest of hours in ones life. While working on this project, we came across a lot of hurdles, but every time we were fortunate enough to get through them with the our great MADAM MAIMOONA who helped us to be come across every hurdle in this report.

LINE:
A line is a one-dimensional figure. That is, a line has length, but no width or height. Basically, a line is made up of an infinite number of points. Points in the same line are called colinear. Between each point is another point. This continues on forever. You can never run out of points to discover in a line. However, when you are talking about points as dots, you can get something called a discrete line. A discrete line is a line made up of dots with space between the centers of the dots. A dense line is a line that is the shortest path between two points. The number line, or coordinatized line, is a line where every point is represented by a number and vice versa. The number line is a one-dimensional graph. See the paragraph about nodes to find out about networks and arcs. If you have two points A and B, the line that contains them is the set of points consisting of the distinct points A and B, all of the points between them, all points for which A is between them and B, and all points for which B is between them and A. A line like that would be written . A line, if not made up by previously known points, can be represented by a single lowercase letter. This is as a contrast to the uppercase letters that represent points. A line segment is the set of points consisting of A, B, and all points between them. A line segment is written . If you have two points A and B, the ray that contains them is the set of points consisting of the distinct points A and B, all of the points between them, and all points for which B is between them and A. This is written . Every line is horizontal, vertical or oblique. Horizontal and vertical speak for them, and an oblique line is any line that isn't horizontal or vertical. Horizontal lines have a slope of zero. Vertical lines are said to have infinite slope, because they just go straight up and not over. People just can't stand that zero in the denominator. Here's something I bet you didn't know: In space, vertical lines never meet (they just go

straight up/down), but it is possible for horizontal lines to meet (check out the corner of the ceiling - two horizontal lines meet there (the edge of the two walls)). Okay, so maybe you did know that. There are four different relationships that two lines can have. Lines can be identical, intersecting, parallel, perpendicular, or skew. Identical lines are lines that coincide. Therefore, they are the same line. The second one is the most obvious. Intersecting lines are lines that share a point. Parallel lines are coplanar lines that never intersect. They always have a certain distance between them and always have the same direction. Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect in one point and form a 90 degree angle while they're at it. Skew lines only happen in space. They are no coplanar lines that never intersect. Unlike parallel lines, however, they don't always have a set distance between them, nor do they always have the same direction.

PLANES:
Planes are two-dimensional. A plane has length and width, but no height, and extends infinitely on all sides. Planes are thought of as flat surfaces, like a table top. A plane is made up of an infinite amount of lines. Two-dimensional figures are called plane figures. While this really should be in Algebra, coordinate planes are two-dimensional graphs that use the ordered pair to locate points. Another name for coordinate planes are Cartesian planes. In mathematics, a plane is any flat, two-dimensional surface. A plane is the two dimensional analogue of a point (zero-dimensions), a line (one-dimension) and a space (three-dimensions). Planes can arise as subspaces of some higher dimensional space, as with the walls of a room, or they may enjoy an independent existence in their own right, as in the setting of Euclidean geometry. When working in two-dimensional Euclidean space, the definite article is used, the plane, to refer to the whole space. Many fundamental tasks in geometry, trigonometry, and graphing are performed in twodimensional space, or in other words, in the plane. A lot of mathematics can be and has been performed in the plane, notably in the areas of geometry, trigonometry, graph theory and graphing.

SPACE:
There's been a request to add something about space here. Space is the set of all points. It is made up of an infinite number of planes. Figures in space are called solids or surfaces. Coordinate space uses three coordinates. Instead of an ordered pair, an ordered triple is used. The new variable, z, measures the distance forwards or backwards that you move. The ordered triple looks like this: (x, y, z).

VECTORS:
In elementary mathematics, physics, and engineering, a Euclidean vector (sometimes called a geometric[1] or spatial vector[2], or - as here - simply a vector) is a geometric object that has both a magnitude (or length) and direction. A Euclidean vector is frequently represented by a line segment with a definite direction, or graphically as an arrow, connecting an initial point A with a terminal point B,[3] and denoted by

A vector is what is needed to "carry" the point A to the point B; the Latin word vector means "one who carries".[4] The magnitude of the vector is the distance between the two points and the direction refers to the direction of displacement from A to B. Many algebraic operations on real numbers such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and negation have close analogues for vectors, operations which obey the familiar algebraic laws of commutativity, associativity, and distributivity. These operations and associated laws qualify Euclidean vectors as an example of the more generalized concept of vectors defined simply as elements of a vector space.

Vectors play an important role in physics: velocity and acceleration of a moving object and forces acting on it are all described by vectors. Many other physical quantities can be usefully thought of as vectors. Although most of them do not represent distances (such as position or displacement), their magnitude and direction can be still represented by the length and direction of an arrow. The mathematical representation of a physical vector depends on the coordinate system used to describe it. Other vector-like objects that describe physical quantities and transform in a similar way under changes of the coordinate system include pseudo vectors and tensors.

EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES :

Lines in Three Dimensions
A line is determined by a point and a direction. Thus, to find an equation representing a line in three dimensions choose a point P_0 on the line and a non-zero vector v parallel to the line. Since any constant multiple of a vector still points in the same direction, it seems reasonable that a point on the line can be found be starting at the point P_0 on the line and following a constant multiple of the vector v (see the figure below).

If r_0 is the position vector of the point P_0, then the line must have the form

This is the vector equation of a line in three dimensions. By letting r=<x,y,z>, r_0=<x_0,y_0,z_0>, and v=<a,b,c> we obtain the equation

which leads to the parametric equations of the line passing through the point P_0=(x_0,y_0,z_0) and parallel to the vector v=<a,b,c>:

PlANES EQUATIONS:
A plane is determined by a point P_0 in the plane and a vector n (called the normal vector) orthogonal to the plane. If P is any other point in the plane and r_0 and r are the position vectors of the points P_0 and P, respectively, then an equation of the plane is

since each vector in the plane must be orthogonal to the normal vector n and the vector r-r_0 is a vector in the plane. Either of these equations is called a vector equation of the plane. With the

substitutions n=<a,b,c>, r=<x,y,z>, and r_0=<x_0,y_0,z_0> and some simplification we have an equation of the plane passing through the point P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0) with normal vector <a,b,c>:

This is frequently written as ax+by+cz=d. Notice that the normal vector can be identified directly from the coefficients on the left hand side of the equation: n=<a,b,c>. As with equations of lines in three dimensions, it should be noted that there is not a unique equation for a given plane. The graph of the plane -2x-3y+z=2 is shown:

Angles between lines and planes:

The angle between 2 lines The angle between 2 planes The angle between a line and a plane.

Each of these will involve calculating the size of an angle between 2 vectors. How to do this is explained near the end of the dot product section. Now all we need to do is to decide which 2 vectors we need to work with in each case.

The angle between 2 lines

We define the angle between 2 lines to be the angle between their direction vectors placed tail to tail. Notice that this definition works

equally well if the lines don't actually cut each other since we then just slide the 2 direction vectors together until their tails meet.

The two lines have the equations r = a + tb and r = c + sd. The angle between the lines is found by working out the dot product of b and d. We have b.d = |b||d| cos A. From this, knowing b and d, we can find the angle A. Taking the example I gave near the end of the dot product section, suppose that b = 2i - 3j + k and d = 4i + j - 3k. Then the working out there shows that the angle A is 84 degrees.

The angle between 2 planes

It is important to choose the correct angle here. It is defined as the angle between 2 lines, one in each plane, so that they are at right angles to the line of intersection of the 2 planes (like the angle between the tops of the pages of an open book).

The angle between the planes is the same as the angle between their 2 normal vectors (sliding their tails together if necessary). Now we just use n.m = |n||m| cos A

The angle between a line and a plane

We slide the normal vector n until its tail is at the point of intersection with the line L with the plane P. Then n and L together define a plane which is perpendicular to plane P. The angle which line L makes with plane P is defined to be the red angle A in this plane. Since A and B together make a right angle, we can find A by using the dot product of n and the direction vector b of line L to first find cos B. Or we can find A even more directly by using the trig identity cos B = cos (90 - A) = sin A so n.b = |n||b| sin A so giving A.

Parametric Equations:
Line in Space
A line in space is defined by two points in space, which I will call P1 and P2. Let be the vector from the origin to P1, and the vector from the origin to P2. Given these two points, every other point P on the line can be reached by

where

is the vector from P1 and P2:

Plane in Space:
The same idea can be used to describe a plane in 3-dimensional space, which is uniquely defined by three points (which do not lie on a line) in space (P1,P2,P3). Let be the vectors from the origin to Pi. Then

with:

Note that the starting point does not have to be , but can be any point in the plane. Similarly, the only requirement on the vectors and is that they have to be two non-collinear vectors in our plane.

Vector Equation (of a Plane in Space, or of a Line in a Plane):

An alternative representation of a Plane in Space is obtained by observing that a plane is defined by a point P1 in that plane and a direction perpendicular to the plane, which we denote with the vector . As above, let describe the vector from the origin to P1, and the vector from the origin to another point P in the plane. Since any vector that lies in the plane is perpendicular to , the vector equation of the plane is given by

In 2 dimensions, the same equation uniquely describes a Line.

Scalar Equation (of a Plane in Space, or of a Line in a Plane):

If we express and through their components

writing out the scalar product for scalar equation for a plane in space: ax + by + cz = d where .

provides us with the

In 2d space, the equivalent steps lead to the scalar equation for a line in a plane: ax + by = c

Vectors are quantities that have a size and a direction:

This may be the first time that you have encountered the concept of a vector. Vectors are central to the study of physics. Since they may be new to you, do not at first try to relate them to ideas that you already have. That may just confuse the issue. It will take a short while to unravel this definition. You will end up understanding vectors to be items that have two parts. Let us first be sure that we understand what is meant by the word quantity.

A quantity is something that you measure.

When we measure something, such as the time it takes you to read this paragraph, we can write down that measurement as a number usually followed by a unit. For example, it may take you 30 seconds to read this paragraph. Using the symbol t for time, one could write down: t = 30 s Usually, we would say, "The time period was 30 seconds long." Or we might say, "30 seconds passed." For now, though, let us say that the quantity of time has a size of 30 seconds.

Some quantities have only size.

In the above example the time period can be completely explained and expressed using only one number, 30 seconds. That number represents the size of the time, and, as a quantity, all that time has is a size. Another quantity that only has a size is the temperature of the room in which you are located. We might say that the temperature is 72 degrees Fahrenheit. The quantity of mass, also, only has a size. We could say, "The mass of the book is 1.2 kilograms." We would be completely stating that quantity of mass with only one number, 1.2 kilograms. Quantities like these, that only have size, are called scalars. Not all quantities are like this. Some have more than size; some also have a direction. Quantities with both a size and a direction are called vectors.

Some quantities have both a size and a direction.

Let us take a look at the concept of velocity as it is used in physics. Velocity can be measured. It is a quantity that can be written down. However, in the study of physics we would say the the following statement does not completely explain nor express a velocity: v = 25 m/s The above statement would read, "The velocity equals 25 meters per second." The size of the velocity would be 25 meters per second. That, though, is not enough. It turns out that velocities have more that just a size. They also have a direction. For example, a statement correctly states a velocity would say, "The velocity equals 25 meters per second North ." Notice that two things are necessary to state a velocity, as size, that is, 25 meters per second, and a direction, North. Now this is how you talk about velocities when you are studying physics. The size of the velocity is actually called the speed. So, we would say that velocity is made up of a speed and a direction. Quantities like this, that have sizes and directions, are called vectors.

By direction we mean relating to North, South, East, and West.

When we say that a quantity has a direction, we mean a direction much like how a direction is thought about on a compass. The velocity of a thrown baseball, of course, is pointed or aimed in the direction that the ball is moving. That is not how we are speaking about direction when we say, "Time marches forward," nor when we say, "The temperature is going up." Time nor temperature are not aimed North, South, East, nor West, or any other compass direction.

The size of a vector is a number and so is the direction.

Well, it should not be too difficult to understand that the size of the velocity, that is, 25 meters per second, is a number. The direction,

also, is described with a number. In the above discussion we stated the direction as North. Almost always directions are a bit more complicated that that. Usually directions are stated using language such as... The direction is 40 degrees North of East. So, a complete vector description of velocity could be written as... The velocity is 38 m/s in a direction of 52 degrees West of North. This 'North of East' and 'West of North' language can be a little confusing at first. More about that in a moment. For now it is important to understand that a vector has two parts; one part is the size, and the other part is the direction. Both parts can be expressed with numbers.

Vectors are symbolized with arrows.

There is a way to draw vectors. They are drawn, or symbolized, if you like, with arrows. An arrow is a perfect symbol for a vector. An arrow has a size, its length, and a direction, the direction in which it is pointing. So, to draw a vector we need just to draw an arrow:

Basic properties of vectors:

The following section uses the Cartesian coordinate system with basis vectors

and assume that all vectors have the origin as a common base point. A vector a will be written as

Vector equality Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. Equivalently they will be equal if their coordinates are equal. So two vectors

and

are equal if

Addition and subtraction:

Assume now that a and b are not necessarily equal vectors, but that they may have different magnitudes and directions. The sum of a and b is

The addition may be represented graphically by placing the start of the arrow b at the tip of the arrow a, and then drawing an arrow from the start of a to the tip of b. The new arrow drawn represents the vector a + b, as illustrated below:

This addition method is sometimes called the parallelogram rule because a and b form the sides of a parallelogram and a + b is one of the diagonals. If a and b are bound vectors that have the same base point, it will also be the base point of a + b. One can check geometrically that a + b = b + a and (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). The difference of a and b is

Subtraction of two vectors can be geometrically defined as follows: to subtract b from a, place the end points of a and b at the same point,

and then draw an arrow from the tip of b to the tip of a. That arrow represents the vector a b, as illustrated below:

Scalar multiplication:
Scalar multiplication of a vector by a factor of 3 stretches the vector out. The scalar multiplications 2a and a of a vector a A vector may also be multiplied, or re-scaled, by a real number r. In the context of conventional vector algebra, these real numbers are often called scalars (from scale) to distinguish them from vectors. The operation of multiplying a vector by a scalar is called scalar multiplication. The resulting vector is

Intuitively, multiplying by a scalar r stretches a vector out by a factor of r. Geometrically, this can be visualized (at least in the case when r is an integer) as placing r copies of the vector in a line where the endpoint of one vector is the initial point of the next vector. If r is negative, then the vector changes direction: it flips around by an angle of 180. Two examples (r = 1 and r = 2) are given below: Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition in the following sense: r(a + b) = ra + rb for all vectors a and b and all scalars r. One can also show that a b = a + (1)b. Length of a vector The length or magnitude or norm of the vector a is denoted by ||a|| or, less commonly, |a|, which is not to be confused with the absolute value (a scalar "norm"). The length of the vector a can be computed with the Euclidean norm

which is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem since the basis vectors e1, e2, e3 are orthogonal unit vectors. This happens to be equal to the square root of the dot product of the vector with itself:

Dot product:
The dot product of two vectors a and b (sometimes called the inner product, or, since its result is a scalar, the scalar product) is denoted by a b and is defined as:

where is the measure of the angle between a and b (see trigonometric function for an explanation of cosine). Geometrically, this means that a and b are drawn with a common start point and then the length of a is multiplied with the length of that component of b that points in the same direction as a. The dot product can also be defined as the sum of the products of the components of each vector as

Unit vector:
A unit vector is any vector with a length of one; normally unit vectors are used simply to indicate direction. A vector of arbitrary length can be divided by its length to create a unit vector. This is known as normalizing a vector. A unit vector is often indicated with a hat as in .

The normalization of a vector a into a unit vector To normalize a vector a = [a1, a2, a3], scale the vector by the reciprocal of its length ||a||. That is:

Null vector:
The null vector (or zero vector) is the vector with length zero. Written out in coordinates, the vector is (0,0,0), and it is commonly denoted , or 0, or simply 0. Unlike any other vector, it does not have a direction, and cannot be normalized (that is, there is no unit vector which is a multiple of the null vector). The sum of the null vector with any vector a is a (that is, 0+a=a).

Cross product:
The cross product (also called the vector product or outer product) is only meaningful in three or seven dimensions. The cross product differs from the dot product primarily in that the result of the cross product of two vectors is a vector. The cross product, denoted a b, is a vector perpendicular to both a and b and is defined as

where is the measure of the angle between a and b, and n is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b which completes a right-handed system. The right-handedness constraint is necessary because there

exist two unit vectors that are perpendicular to both a and b, namely, n and (n).

An illustration of the cross product. The cross product a b is defined so that a, b, and a b also becomes a right-handed system (but note that a and b are not necessarily orthogonal). This is the right-hand rule. The length of a b can be interpreted as the area of the parallelogram having a and b as sides. The cross product can be written as

For arbitrary choices of spatial orientation (that is, allowing for lefthanded as well as right-handed coordinate systems) the cross product of two vectors is a pseudovector instead of a vector (see below).

Scalar triple product:

The scalar triple product (also called the box product or mixed triple product) is not really a new operator, but a way of applying the other two multiplication operators to three vectors. The scalar triple product is sometimes denoted by (a b c) and defined as:

It has three primary uses. First, the absolute value of the box product is the volume of the parallelepiped which has edges that are defined by the three vectors. Second, the scalar triple product is zero if and only if the three vectors are linearly dependent, which can be easily proved by considering that in order for the three vectors to not make a volume, they must all lie in the same plane. Third, the box product is positive if and only if the three vectors a, b and c are right-handed. In components (with respect to a right-handed orthonormal basis), if the three vectors are thought of as rows (or columns, but in the same order), the scalar triple product is simply the determinant of the 3-by-3 matrix having the three vectors as rows

The scalar triple product is linear in all three entries and antisymmetric in the following sense:

Vector components:

Illustration of tangential and normal components of a vector to a surface. A component of a vector is the influence of that vector in a given direction. [1] Components are themselves vectors. A vector is often described by a fixed number of components that sum up into this vector uniquely and totally. When used in this role, the choice of their constituting directions is dependent upon the particular coordinate system being used, such as Cartesian coordinates,

spherical coordinates or polar coordinates. For example, an axial component of a vector is a component whose direction is determined by a projection onto one of the Cartesian coordinate axes, whereas radial and tangential components relate to the radius of rotation of an object as their direction of reference. The former is parallel to the radius and the latter is orthogonal to it. [2] Both remain orthogonal to the axis of rotation at all times. (In two dimensions this requirement becomes redundant as the axis degenerates to a point of rotation.) The choice of a coordinate system doesn't affect properties of a vector or its behavior under transformations.

Vector projection:
The vector resolute (also known as the vector projection) of two vectors, in the direction of (also " on "), is given by:

where is the angle between the vectors and ; the operator is the dot product; and is the unit vector in the direction of . The vector resolute is a vector, and is the orthogonal projection of the vector onto the vector . The vector resolute is also said to be a component of vector in the direction of vector . The other component of addition of vectors) (perpendicular to ) is given by:(By triangle

The vector resolute is also the scalar resolute multiplied by (in order to convert it into a vector, or give it direction).e.g. in this case scalar resolute is .

Vector resolute overview:

If A and B are two vectors, the projection (C) of A on B is the vector that has the same slope as B with the length:

To calculate C use the following property of the dot product: Using the above equation:

Multiply and divide by |

B | at the same time:

In the resulting fraction, the top term is the same as the dot product, hence:

To find the length of | C | with an unknown , and unknown direction, multiply it with the unit vector B:

giving the final formula:

Vectors as directional derivatives

A vector may also be defined as a directional derivative: consider a function f(x) and a curve x(). Then the directional derivative of f is a scalar defined as

where the index is summed over the appropriate number of dimensions (for example, from 1 to 3 in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, from 0 to 3 in 4-dimensional spacetime, etc.). Then consider a vector tangent to x():

The directional derivative can be rewritten in differential form (without a given function f) as

Therefore any directional derivative can be identified with a corresponding vector, and any vector can be identified with a corresponding directional derivative. A vector can therefore be defined precisely as

Vector calculus:
Vector calculus (or vector analysis) is a branch of mathematics concerned with differentiation and integration of vector fields. The

term "vector calculus" is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader subject of multivariable calculus, which includes vector calculus as well as partial differentiation and multiple integration. Vector calculus plays an important role in differential geometry and in the study of partial differential equations. It is used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in the description of electromagnetic fields, gravitational fields and fluid flow. Vector calculus was developed from quaternion analysis by J. Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heavyset near the end of the 19th century, and most of the notation and terminology was established by Gibbs and Wilson in their 1901 book, Vector Analysis.

Tangential and normal components:

In mathematics, given a vector at a point on a curve, that vector can be decomposed uniquely as a sum of two vectors, one tangent to the curve, called the tangential component of the vector, and another one perpendicular to the curve, called the normal component of the vector. Similarly a vector at a point on a surface can be broken down the same way. More generally, given a sub manifold N of a manifold M, and a vector in the tangent space to M at a point of N, it can be decomposed into the component tangent to N and the component normal to N.

References:
www.google.com www.wikipedia.com www.imhalal.com