Chapter 1.

1: Introduction

1-1

What is an Internal Combustion Engine?

The internal combustion engine is a mechanical device in which the

rapid oxidation of gas and air occurs in a confined space called a
combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction of a fuel with an oxidizer
creates gases of high temperature and pressure, which are allowed to
expand.

The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work

is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly on the piston,
causing movement of the piston inside the cylinder.

This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as steam engines

and Stirling engines, which use an external combustion chamber to heat
a separate working fluid, which then in turn does useful work e.g. by
moving a piston.

The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is almost always used to

refer specifically to reciprocating engines, Wankel engines and similar
designs in which combustion is intermittent. However, continuous
combustion engines, such as jet engines, most rockets and many gas
turbines are also internal combustion engines.
1-2

Brief Historical Perspective

1860s: Lenoir engine burned coal gas-air mixtures at atmospheric pressure before combustion. 5000
engines built up to 6 hp; efficiency up to 5%
1862: Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patents but does not build a four-stroke engine
1866: Otto and Langen build 5,000 atmospheric engines with up to 11% efficiency and 2 hp.
1876: Otto builds a four-stroke engine. Enormous reduction in engine weight and volume. 50,000
engines sold in Europe and U.S.
1882: Atkinson invents the two-stroke engine with a longer expansion than compression stroke.
Compression ratios 4 to avoid knock.
1893: Diesel received a patent for compression-ignition internal combustion engine using petrol oil
which achieves high thermal efficiency due to greater compression ratios.
1908: Production of the Model T begins. One of the first mass produced, affordable automobiles
(average cost ~ $550). 2.9 L spark ignited engine, ~ 20 HP, 13-21 mpg, CR = 4.5:1.
1923: Bosch develops a number of designs for fuel injection pumps.
1939: First volume production car to be fitted with diesel (Mercedes 260D)
1946: Stratified-charge, spark-ignition engine developed by Texaco
1961: Wankel patents rotary engine
1970s: First direct-injection SI engine by Ford
1975: Three way catalysts appear on spark-ignited vehicles within the US. The catalysts significantly
reduce NOx, HC and CO emissions, however, the vehicles must be operated stoichiometrically for
efficient catalyst operation.
1980s: Electronic SI Engine Controllers
1990s: Electronic Diesel Engine Controllers
2000s: Hybridization is introduced for production cars
2000s: High-pressure common rail injection system for Diesel engines
2010s: Downsized, boosted SI engines
1-3

Todays ICE
Spark-Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI or
Diesel) Engines
Difference in combustion defines engine: use either spark or
compression to ignite air-fuel mixture
Gasoline and Diesel are primarily used

U.S. Diesel Popularity

2005: 3.2% of market share*
2015 forecast: ~10% of market share*

Nearly 50% of New Registrations for Western

European Vehicles are Diesel Powered with Some
Countries over 70%**

* J.D. Power and Associates (2006)

** Schindler, DEER Conference (2006)

1-4

Engine Classification
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Applications
Basic Engine Design
Working Cycle
Method of Gas Exchange
Valve and Port Design
Fuels
Method of Mixture Preparation,
Ignition and Combustion
h. Method of Load Control

1-5

Chapter 1.2: Introduction

Engine Classification (a-b)

1-6

a. Applications
Class
Road vehicles

Off-road vehicles

Railroad
Marine

Airborne Vehicles
Home use

Stationary

Service
Motorcycles, scooters
Small passenger cars
Large passenger cars
Light truck
Heavy (long-distance) truck
Light vehicles (factory, airport, etc.)
Agricultural
Earth moving
Military
Rail cars
Locomotives
Outboard
Inboard motorcrafts
Light naval craft
Jet skis
Ships
Ships' auxiliaries
Airplanes
Helicopters
Lawn mowers
Snow blowers
Light tractors
Building service
Electric power
Gas pipeline

Approx.
engine power
range, kW
0.75-70
15-75
75-200
35-150
120-400
1.5-15
3-150
40-750
40-2000
150-400
400-3000
0.4-75
4-750
30-2200
5-10
3500-80000
75-750
45-2700
45-1500
0.7-5
2-5
2-8
7-400
35-22000
750-5000

Predominant Type
CI or SI Cycle Cooling
SI
2, 4
A
CI, SI
4
A, W
CI, SI
4
W
CI, SI
4
W
CI
2, 4
W
SI
2, 4
A, W
CI, SI
2, 4
A, W
CI
2, 4
W
CI
2, 4
A, W
CI
2, 4
W
CI
2, 4
W
SI
2
W
CI, SI
4
W
CI
2, 4
W
SI
2, 4
A, W
CI
2, 4
W
CI
4
W
SI
4
A
SI
4
A
SI
2, 4
A
SI
2, 4
A
SI
4
A
CI
2, 4
W
CI, SI
2, 4
W
SI
2, 4
W

A Air
W Water
Heywood (1988), Internal Combustion Engines; Taylor (1985), The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice

1-7

Extreme Engine Sizes

the small

www.modelflight.com.au
1-8

Extreme Engine Sizes

the big
Engine

Sulzer RTA-96C

Engine weight

2087 metric tons

Length

27.1 m

Height

13.4 m

Cylinders

14

Bore

960 mm

Stroke

2500 mm

Maximum power

81220 kW at 102 rpm

http://www.emma-maersk.com/engine/Wartsila_Sulzer_RTA96-C.htm
1-9

b. Basic Engine Design

Reciprocating
In-line
V-shaped
Radial

Rotary (Wankel)

Keep these in mind as we go

through the basic designs:
Working Cycle
Method of Breathing
Valve or Port Design
Method of Mixture
Preparation, Ignition
and Combustion
Method of Load Control

1 - 10

Common Piston Engine Layouts

V-6 engines
Shorter that I-6
Good matching of firing to
balance needed

In-line 5-cylinder
Used by Volkswagen,
Volvo, Ford and others

V-8 engines
Essentially, two I-4s joined
to common crankshaft at an
angle

In-line 6-cylinder
Smooth operation, long
BMWs traditional layout

Flat-4
Cylinders arranged horizontally
Low center of gravity, smooth
operation
Subaru, Porsche

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

In-line 4-cylinder
Most lightweight economy cars
Short enough to be placed
sideways (transverse mounting)

1 - 11

SI designs

1 - 12

In-Line Four
Cylinder
SI Engine
(pushrod)

uses under head camshaft

Cylinder head:
communicates with intake
and exhaust systems.
Contains passageways that
the air (& fuel) pass
through. Contains cooling
passageways.

Engine block: houses

cylinders and also
contains passageways
for coolant to prevent
extreme temperatures
(water and oil jackets).

Flywheel: stores angular

momentum so that it
smoothens power
pulses from individual
pistons.

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 13

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 14

Filters intake air

In-Line Four
Cylinder
SI Engine
(OHC)

Overhead
Older method
for
introducing
fuel

Activates valves with

one lobe per valve

Breathing of
engine.
Have
machined
surfaces for
uniform
combustion
F = pA chamber.

Engine designers are

concerned about packaging.
In-line 4-cylinder is relatively
compact, but in-line 8cylinder is impractical.

Controls camshaft,
but parasitic loss of
power

Translates force on
piston to crankshaft

Connected to
transmission for
translating engine
power to wheels

Society of Automotive Engineers, 1981

1 - 15

Throttle in fully
closed position.

V-Design
SI Engine
(pushrod)

and runners
partial vacuum

Different Working Fluids

Blue fresh air
Red exhaust gases
Yellow lubricating oil
Green coolant to reduce
temperature (or warm-up)

puddles

In this case, the engine

uses low pressure fuel
injection (~ 2 bar) in the
intake ports. Need good
atomization at low flow
rates.

WOT Wide open throttle,

minimum pressure drop through
throttle plate (most time
operated at part load)
Courtesy of Ford Motor Company

1 - 16

SI Piston Detail

Pistons provide the force

that drives the engine
Depending on the
application, there are many
different types of piston
shapes
Two compression rings
seal working fluid in
chamber
Oil ring scrapes off oil to
prevent from entering
chamber
Most 4-valve engines have
cut-outs at the piston
surface to avoid contact
with the valves

Top Land

Piston crown

Compression
Rings (2)
Oil Ring

Skirt

Connecting
Rod

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 17

CI/Diesel designs

1 - 18

Fuel Injector

In-Line Four
Cylinder
Light-Duty
CI Engine
(Ford)

Notice the very compact

design of engine. This is
a 4-valve design with
one camshaft for the
intake valves and one for
the exhaust valves.

Common fuel rail that feeds each

cylinders injector at > 2000 bar

1 - 19

Design Features
of a Heavy-Duty
Truck Engine

MEUI Fuel Injector

High-pressure injection system is a

large cost factor for CI engines ~ 2030% of total cost.
To account for the high pressures (1500-2000
bar vs. 50 bar in SI) during combustion, these
engines have robust components (ex:
connecting rod)
Notice the bowl shape in the piston to
account for the fuel injection spray. Have to
make sure of correct injection timing. (soot,
turbulence, mixing)
Cylinder liner may be press-fitted so the
block material and the piston material
are different. May reduce the weight of
the engine.
Wet liner means that the cooling fluid
flows over the liner, whereas for a dry
liner does not.
Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.

1 - 20

Radial Engines
Gasoline engines can also be
designed using a radial
configuration.
These engines are mostly used in
the aircraft industry and not in
automobiles
Differences with in-line and V
configurations are mostly just
packaging still four-stroke,
reciprocating combustion

Schwaller, Anthony E., Motor Automotive Technology

Radial Engine

1 - 21

 Same thermodynamic
working cycle as
previous engine designs
Mechanical
arrangement is very
different
Typically lower
efficiency, due in part to
the high surface area to
volume ratio of the
combustion chamber,
which effects heat
transfer
Smoother torque
production (less
imbalance)
Fewer moving parts
Mazda production
engines (RX-8)

Why not Wankel?

Used to have sealing
problems and high fuel
consumption

Wankel (Rotary) Engine

Uses a rotor instead of
reciprocating pistons.
This design delivers smooth
high-rpm power from a
compact, lightweight engine.
3 power strokes per
one revolution of rotor

Wankel Engine
analogous to engine block
no valves

Rotor controls
working space.
Each face
creates one
combustion
chamber.

Seals package

Spins 3 times faster

than rotor

Mobil Technical Bulletin, Rotary Engines, 1971

1 - 22

Chapter 1.3: Introduction

Engine Classification (c-e)

1 - 23

Engine Classification
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Applications
Basic Engine Design
Working Cycle
Method of Breathing
Valve or Port Design
Fuels
Method of Mixture Preparation, Ignition
and Combustion
h. Method of Load Control

1 - 24

c. Working Cycle
Four-stroke
The four strokes refer to intake, compression,
combustion/expansion and exhaust strokes that occur during
two crankshaft rotations per working cycle.

Two-stroke
The two-stroke cycle of an internal combustion engine differs
from the more common four-stroke cycle by completing the
same four processes (intake, compression,
combustion/expansion, exhaust) in only two strokes of the
piston rather than four.

1 - 25

Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

One power stroke per two revolutions (720) of crankshaft
TDC (0) BDC (180)

Intake Stroke:
Piston descends drawing
in air/fuel mixture while
the intake valve is open
(exhaust valve closed).
Intake valve closing ends
process.

BDC (180) TDC (360)

Compression Stroke:
While both valves are
closed, piston rises in the
cylinder compressing fuel/air
mixture.

TDC (360) BDC (540)

BDC (540) TDC (720)

Combustion/Expansion
Stroke:
Compressed gas is ignited
by spark plug. Expanding
burning gases push piston
down.

Exhaust Stroke:
Exhaust valve opens and the
piston rises to expel burned
gases. Exhaust valve
closing and intake valve
opening ends process.

Geometric stroke is defined as Top Dead Center (TDC)

to Bottom Dead Center (BDC) or vice-versa

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual; Car Bibles: The Fuel and Engine Bible (four-stroke animation)

1 - 26

Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

One power stroke per two revolutions (720) of crankshaft

Intake Stroke:
Piston descends drawing
in air while the intake
valve is open
(exhaust valve closed).
Intake valve closing ends
process.

Compression Stroke:
While both valves are
closed, piston rises in the
cylinder compressing the air.
Just before maximum
compression, diesel fuel is
injected into the chamber
under very high pressure.

Combustion/Expansion
Stroke:
Fuel vaporizes and ignites
after very short delay in the
hot compressed air.
Expanding burning gases
push piston down.

Exhaust Stroke:
Exhaust valve opens and the
piston rises to expel burned
gases. Exhaust valve
closing and intake valve
opening ends process.

Geometric stroke is defined as Top Dead Center (TDC)

to Bottom Dead Center (BDC) or vice-versa
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 27

Two Stroke SI or CI Engine Cycle

One power stroke per one revolution (360) of crankshaft

Crank Scavenging

Crankcase
flow can bring
oil with air or
air/fuel
* Dead zones
may not get
properly purged

Ports activated by
motion of piston.
Piston shape helps
with breathing by
driving flow
direction.

EGR
happens
without
trying

Car Bibles: The Fuel and Engine Bible (two-stroke animation)

Uniflow Scavenging
*

Timing decided by
the location of
exhaust ports
versus intake ports
Short-circuiting
may occur (loss of
fresh mixture)

HowStuffWorks (2007)

1 - 28

Working Cycle

4 stroke design*

2 stroke design**
More animations:

* http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCNna-qJscY
** http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gUBmBT_K_nM

http://www.animatedengines.com
1 - 29

Wankel Four-Stroke Cycle

Intake:
As one rotor tip passes
intake port it creates a
chamber of increasing
volume and draws in fuelair mixture.

Compression:
As rotor continues to
revolve, the second tip
passes intake port sealing
the fuel mixture in a
chamber of decreasing
volume.

Combustion/Expansion:
Spark-ignition causes fuel
mixture to burn and expand,
imparting energy to rotor.
The size of the chamber will
increase during this process.

Exhaust:
The leading tip of the rotor
passes the exhaust port and
leaves it open for the burned
gases to escape as chamber
decreases in size.
For every revolution of the
rotor, three power strokes
occur.

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual; Wankel Engine

1 - 30

d. Method of Breathing

Naturally Aspirated Ambient air input

Turbocharged
Used to increase air mass into
cylinder for higher power output
Supercharged
Crank Scavenged
to cool the inlet air effectively increasing
Intercooling / Aftercooling Usedthe
density (from the ideal gas law)

Ideal Gas Law

p = RT

Compressing the mixture

will raise the pressure,
density and temperature of
the mixture subject to the
ideal gas law. For a given
volume of air, the more
dense it is, the more mass
we can put in the cylinder.

m = V

1 - 31

Up to 35% of fuel energy

can exit in the exhaust gas,
however not all of this
energy can be converted
into useful work (2nd law).

Turbocharger Principle

The amount of power that an engine can

produce is limited by the amount of air and fuel
that can be drawn into the cylinders.
Turbochargers use the high-speed flow of
exhaust gases to power a small turbine wheel
compressing the intake mixture.
The greater the flow of exhaust gases, the
faster the turbine spins and the more
compression that takes place.
A waste gate prevents the process from
getting out of hand sensor on inlet pressure
is utilized to bypass some exhaust energy.
No direct coupling to engine
May lead to knock in SI engines.
Aerodynamic compressor may not have
constant volume flow rate during operation;
hence susceptible to surging and choking

Surge: flow detached from blades causing nonideal accel/deceleration of compressor wheel
Choking: critical flow is reached

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 32

Turbocharging

Utilization of exhaust gas energy that

would otherwise be lost
However, the turbocharger adds a
restriction on the system, which
may affect pumping work.

Q: Why not use T/C on all engines?

Turbochargers can suffer from turbo

lag
When acceleration is needed, exhaust
energy initially is not enough to keep up
with the demand.
Inertia of turbocharger must be
overcome.
Compressed air must travel through
the intake pipes to reach the cylinders.
Fairbanks (2004), Engine Maturity, Efficiency and Potential Improvements

Depending on operating conditions,

boosting the engine generally provides
higher overall thermal efficiency.
1 - 33

Advantage always on
Disadvantage parasitic loss

While turbochargers use the exhaust flow,

superchargers are powered mechanically by a
belt- or chain-drive from the engines
crankshaft

Roots type

Twin screw type

Driven parasitically from engine crankshaft

Superchargers do not suffer from any lag

because they respond directly to the speed of
the engine

Supercharger Principle

As the engine power increases, the

supercharger immediately spins faster

Positive Displacement Pump every rotation

it will output the same amount of volume flow
rate (not subject to surging or choking)

Centrifugal type

* Howstuffworks How Superchargers Work

* Supercharging

1 - 34

Supercharger Movies

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MiW5vehtTCk

1 min 15 sec

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDkSW7evYM8

1 min 2 sec

1 - 35

Two-Stroke
Diesel Engine
Operation
With Uniflow
Scavenging

Supercharging can
help with the
scavenging process
by increasing intake
air pressure

1 - 36

Intercooling / Aftercooling

An Intercooler lowers the temperature of the

intake mixture, which will increase the density
according to the Ideal Gas Law.
This is especially important in Turbocharging
and Supercharging applications because
compression also increases the temperature.
A small pressure drop occurs through the
Intercooler but at a much larger gain in
density.
The Inter- in the name refers to its location
compared to the compressors.
In aircraft engines, coolers were typically
installed between multiple stages of
supercharging.
Modern automotive designs are technically
Aftercoolers.
Design of the size of the Intercooler is also
important due to the volume of air it contains
which can lead to a larger turbo lag.

Dinkel (2000), Road & Track Illustrated Automotive Dictionary

p = RT

1 - 37

e. Valve or Port Design

Poppet Valves (Four-Stroke Scavenging Methods)
Used to bring in the fresh charge (consisting of air or air + fuel)
during intake and to expel burned gases during the exhaust stroke
Valve actuation:
Pushrod and rocker-arm
Overhead camshaft

Ports (Two-stroke Scavenging Methods)

Also used for intake and exhaust
Most common methods:
Loop-scavenged porting
Uniflow-scavenged
Intake ports combined with a poppet exhaust valve

Crank Scavenged

1 - 38

Pushrod and Rocker-Arm Valvetrain

In a rocker-arm type
arrangement, cams
located below the
valves operate a
pushrod that cause a
rocker arm to pivot and
push the valve down

Springs provide tension

to close the valves
when the pushrods are
no longer active

Modern cars typically

no longer use this
approach

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 39

Overhead Camshaft Valvetrain

Overhead camshafts
operate the valves more
directly than rocker-arm
design.

Fewer parts and less

inertia allow engines to run
faster.

One or more overhead

camshafts may be used.

V-type engine with dual

overhead camshafts has
four camshafts in total.

Roller finger follower

2.2L GM Ecotec
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 40

2 Valve vs. 4 Valve Designs in CI engines

The effective flow area for

the intake and exhaust
process can be increased
by increasing the number
of valves

This impacts the flow velocity

and resulting friction losses,
which influence volumetric
efficiency

The flow will choke if the

flow area is too small

Volumetric efficiency: the

effectiveness of the engine at
inducting air

The valve configuration

can also be used for
turbulence enhancement
or flow arrangement

1 - 41

Ideal Timing Diagram

Introduction to timing
diagrams
Reference four-stroke cycle
Geometric processes
define the intake and
exhaust events
Not really what happens

1 - 42

Valve Lift
Valves do not open instantly takes time to reach max lift

The inlet and exhaust valve opening is

a function of the crank angle and
varies from a closed position to a
maximum lift position.

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 43

Geometric Valve Lift Effect

Lobes have gradual ramps

Stiff ramps would cause higher
velocity during valve lift
Higher mechanical loads,
friction forces and more losses

effective open
area close to
maximum lift
greatly
reduced

Adjust valve timing to expose

more of flow to maximum lift
-30

Ideal would be to have instant

on for maximum flow rate
Camless valvetrains
Electromagnetic or
Electrohydraulic
Use solenoids to get
approximately square wave
profiles

180

210

Camless Lift

Lift with Cam

1 - 44

Intake Fluid Dynamics Effect

In addition to geometric concerns, fluid

dynamics must be considered
At BDC, piston has effectively zero
velocity
During reversion of piston, flow velocities
are initially low; hence, the loss due to
piston movement is small
Can take advantage of the high speed
momentum of inlet air flow to continue to
charge cylinder: IVC occurs after BDC
(180)
Momentum effect depends on length and
diameter of intake runner.
Must consider momentum when
specifying valve timing:

RAM effect: high speed

momentum of air flow continues
to charge cylinder as piston moves
from BDC
BDC

Low engine speeds (rpm) dictate earlier

closing (closer to BDC)
High engine speeds dictate later closing
May get backflow if improper timing: loss
in fresh charge back through inlet valve

1 - 45

Exhaust Fluid Dynamics Effect

Why not follow same methodology as

intake for exhaust by opening after
BDC?

1 bar

Will act to purge the cylinder

However, now we perform negative
work by using the piston to push out
the exhaust gas

There is a thermodynamic advantage

by opening the exhaust valve early
Large pressure drop across valve
causes significant blowdown and
purging of combustion gases from
cylinder, P ~ 5-10 bar
Open during late expansion after most
of the combustion has occurred to
take advantage of pressure drop

There exists a balance between

expansion work and purging of the
exhaust gases during blowdown
process
BDC

Balance between expansion, exhaust

and compression work

1 - 46

Overlap Period

Valve overlap = both valves open

When both the intake and exhaust valves
are open, backflow may occur from the
exhaust into the intake side
Is this desirable?
Yes or no depending on the gas exchange
target
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) reduces
NOx emissions and may be used for partload operation
Internal (i-EGR) or External (e-EGR)
The fact that pintake in an SI engine is normally
below pexhaust accentuates the backflow
process, especially at idle
This decreases volumetric efficiency even
more than for engines with no overlap. This
is why race engines with large overlap idle
so poorly as shown on next slide.

e-EGR

i-EGR

pexhaust > pcylinder > pintake

1 - 47

Four Stroke Valve Timing: Conventional vs. Formula SAE

Conventional Engine

Formula SAE Engine

EVC
EVC

IVO

IVO

IVC
EVO
IVC
A single set of valve timings
will not work for all engines
and all desired conditions

EVO

High-speed timing (12,000 rpm):

Use momentum of air intake to
close extremely late
Early blowdown because of high
engine speed (time/breathing)
Poor idling capabilities

More overlap for scavenging

(make sure all exhaust gases
leave the cylinder)

1 - 48

Two-Stroke Scavenging Methods

Loop scavenging
No valvetrain required
Possibility of short
circuiting air through the
exhaust ports

Loop Scavenging

Uniflow Scavenging
EXHAUST VALVE

Uniflow scavenging
Improved volumetric
efficiency relative to loop
scavenging
More complicated design
(exhaust valve and
mechanism)

marineengineeringonline.com

Crank scavenging
See slide 1-28

1 - 49

May lose fresh

mass

Short-circuiting can
occur during this time

Helps push out

exhaust gases

1 - 50

Chapter 1.4: Introduction

Engine Classification (contd)

1 - 51

Engine Classification (Contd)

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Applications
Basic Engine Design
Working Cycle
Method of Breathing
Valve or Port Design
Fuels
Method of Mixture Preparation, Ignition
and Combustion
h. Method of Load Control

1 - 52

f. Fuels

Gasoline
Diesel
Natural Gas, LPG
Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
Synthetic diesel
Bio-diesel
Dual Fuel
Gas to Liquid / Coal to Liquid
Hydrogen

1 - 53

Fuel Choices

Crunching the Numbers on Alternative Fuels Popular Mechanics

1 - 54

Fuel Air Mixture Preliminaries

CHEMICALLY EXACT (STOICHIOMETRIC) MIXTURE
FUEL

AIR

PRODUCTS

CH2 + 3/2 [ O2 + 3.76N2]

moles

(12+2)
mass

14

+ 3/2 [ 32 + 3.76 (28) ]

+

206

(F/A) Stoich = 14/206 = 0.068

Fuel-Air
Equivalence ratio

Lean

Relative Measures

F/A
( F / A) ST

0.6 < < 1.7

Rich

CO2 + H2O + 5.64 N2

or

(A/F) Stoich = 14.7

Air-Fuel
Equivalence ratio

Flammability Range

A/ F
1
=
( A / F ) ST

1.7 > > 0.6

Lean

Rich
1 - 55

g. Methods of Mixture Preparation, Ignition and

Combustion
SI
Homogeneous Charge
Spark Ignition

CI (Diesel)
Stratified Charge
Compression Ignition

HCCI
Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition

SIDI
Homogeneous or
Stratified Charge
Spark Ignition

MITSUBISHI GDI
MIT Laboratory for Energy and the Environment

Spark Ignited (SI)

Compression Ignited (CI)
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) also commonly referred to as Low Temperature Combustion (LTC)
Spark Ignited Direct Injection (SIDI) also known as Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

1 - 56

g. Methods of Mixture Preparation, Ignition and

Combustion
Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame1

SIDI (late)2

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)3

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

1.
2.
3.

The CI process begins with auto-ignition and transitions to a non-premixed flame

SIDI (late): Late injection is used to shorten fuel residence times, reducing the amount of fuel air mixing prior to
combustion
SIDI (early): Early injection is used to lengthen fuel residence times, allowing for more fuel air mixing before
combustion

1 - 57

Stratified Mixture Preparation Methods

Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame

SIDI (late)

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

Stratified Mixture Preparation Methods

Indirect Injection (IDI)
Direct Injection

1 - 58

Indirect Injection (IDI) for diesels

Antiquated system used in prechamber CI engines

Fuel only goes into pre-chamber
where there is a great amplification of
turbulence
Glow plug used to warm-up small
chamber for cold starts (resistance
heating element)
Relatively quiet compared to direct
injection (following slides)
Subject to losses in heat transfer and
power

~ 300 bar

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

Note tortuous path of fluid flow during

combustion

Fuel economy not as good because

of throttling losses and combustion is
delayed

Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1982

1 - 59

Methods of Direct Diesel Fuel Injection

Pump-Line-Nozzle (PLN)

Common Rail

Fundamentals of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Systems

Have reservoir (rail) of fuel at high pressure (>2000 bar).

Can tap from reservoir to provide multiple pulses of
different amounts of fuel at different times. Minimizes
soot, noise and can maximize power output.
Fuel gets
pressurized,
mechanical
system to inject
fuel. Only one
pulse allowed.

BMW World

1 - 60

Methods of Fuel Injection for SIDI Engines

Fuel Injector

Similar to common rail fuel

injection
Lower injection pressures,
100-300 bar
Fuel injector may be centrally
or side mounted
Piston design depends on
injector and spray orientation

motivemag.com

Spark Plug

1 - 61

Homogeneous Mixture Preparation Methods

Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame

SIDI (late)

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

Homogeneous Mixture Preparation Methods

Carburetion
Port Fuel Injection
Early Direct Injection (DI)
1 - 62

Carburetion

Antiquated system used on SI engines

As piston moves downward while intake
valve is open, a partial vacuum is created
inside the cylinder
Due to pressure difference between ambient
and cylinder, flow is created in the intake
system
This flow through a carburetor draws fuel out
of a float bowl which is around the same
pressure as the incoming air
The fuel vaporizes and mixes with air to
create charge
Throttle plate (controlled by fuel pedal)
adjusts the pressure difference in the intake
system
Had problems during idling (very low airflow)
Choke used to flood engine with fuel for
starting purposes; used another restrictor in
the system upstream of throat area to
introduce greater pressure drop between fuel
and venturi
Had issues when operated at altitude

Fuel flow rate

depends on pressure
gradient (left in hands
of nature)

~ atmospheric

partial vacuum

Venturi causes
velocity increase and
by Bernoullis
principle
(conservation of
energy) pressure
must decrease

piston movement
causes the vacuum

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 63

Port Fuel Injection

Motivation for Port Fuel Injection

Torque and Horsepower
Improved fuel distribution
WOT enrichment closer to
optimum A/F
Open intake valve injection
possible for WOT torque
improvement

Emissions
Improved air/fuel control during
warm-up & stabilized engine
Closed intake valve injection
possible
Individual cylinder adaptive
learning reduces C-T-C variation

Fuel pressures 4-10 bar

Mechanical system illustrated,
however all electrical now
ECU dictates timing and duration
of fuel injection

Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual

1 - 64

Combustion in Homogeneous SI and SIDI Engines

Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame

SIDI (late)

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

Concept
Homogeneous mixture composition
Control Heat Release Rate (HRR) through flame propagation

1 - 65

Images of Premixed Flame Propagation in an SI Engine

SI Combustion
Chamber Cross
Section

View of Cylinder Head Through

Optical Window in Piston Crown

Geometric compression
ratios range from 8 to 14
(knock constraints)

Spark plug
Flame kernel

+0.0 deg

+4.2 deg

Fuel Air
Mixture
(Unburned)

Burned Gas

Valves

Spark

Propagating
Thin Flame

Laminar flame

+8.4 deg

Piston

Turbulent flame

+12.6 deg

+16.8 deg

Crank Angle Degrees (CAD)

Zigler, B., An Experimental Investigation of the Properties of Low Temperature Combustion in an Optical
Engine, PhD Thesis in Mechanical Engineering, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (2008)

1 - 66

Combustion in CI (Diesel) Engines

Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame1

SIDI (late)

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

1. The CI process typically begins with auto-ignition and transitions to a non-premixed flame

Concept
Use overall very lean mixture for high thermal efficiency
Locally, the mixture can range from lean to rich (stratification)
Control Heat Release Rate (HRR) by mixing air with fuel
Fast enough to consume all of the fuel
Slow enough to avoid global fast autoignition
1 - 67

High Pressure Direct Injection Diesel Engine

Can auto ignite lean overall mixtures
(A/F = 100:1 is possible). Pockets of
concentrated fuel/air mixture around
injector will be rich enough in fuel to
trigger autoignition.

Utilize fluid mechanics, shape of

piston and high pressure injection
to promote mixing of fuel with air

Within the fuel spray mixture will

be extremely rich (A/F = 0) and
soot can form

Never goes globally stoichiometric because

of emissions issues (A/F ~ 30:1 max)

Geometric compression
ratios 12 24

Load is controlled by amount of

fuel injected, not by air flow
through throttle plate

1 - 68

Combustion in a Direct Injection Diesel Engine

Combustion happens over a range of fuel/air
mixtures and temperatures. There will be
locations where there is too much fuel (soot),
there will also be pockets where we have
high temperatures and excess O2 (NOx)

Conceptual Model of Mixing

Controlled Diesel Combustion
Non-Premixed
Flame , ~ 1

Fuel
=

Rich Mix
~4
Soot
formation

http://picasaweb.google.com

DI Diesel Fuel Spray Movie

(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LnZmt5SViuY)

Flynn, P. F., et al. (1999) Diesel combustion: An integrated view combining

laser diagnostics, chemical kinetics, and empirical validation. SAE Paper
No. 1999-01-0509

1 - 69

Combustion in Stratified SIDI Engines

Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame

SIDI (late)

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

Concept
Use overall lean mixture for high thermal efficiency
Locally, the mixture can range from lean to rich (stratification)
Arrange fuel air mixture near spark plug to be stoichiometric (A/F = 14.6) for
ignition
Control Heat Release Rate (HRR) through flame propagation
1 - 70

Gasoline Direct Injection

SIDI with gasoline fuel

Used to take advantage of fuel economy benefits of
globally lean mixtures at low load
Nearly premixed, stoichiometric operation at
high load through early injection
Control engine through fuel injection not throttle plate
to eliminate pumping loss (more vacuum, more loss)
Can get 100% of fuel in cylinder versus PFI
Vaporization of fuel in cylinder removes energy from
surrounding air which lowers temperature
(evaporative cooling) can go to higher compression
ratios
Homogeneous mixture at WOT is harder to create
Still uses spark plug, so mixture composition around
plug is crucial (piston-guided design)
Use of intake air motion and fuel injection on
modified piston shape to get stoichiometric
mixture around spark plug at desired time
Misfire is a strong likelihood for this engine, if
mixture is too lean or too rich
Premixed flame will propagate through fuel-air
mixtures ranging from locally lean to locally rich
Can have issues with catalytic exhaust aftertreatment
What about knock and this design?

Compression ratios range from

around 10 to 15

Mitsubishi GDI

Stratified charge engine that

runs at global A/F of 40 or 50:1

1 - 71

Gasoline Direct Injection Modes

Stratified
(Lean / Part Load)

Homogeneous
(Stoichiometric / Full Load)

1 - 72

Combustion in Homogeneous Charge Compression

Ignition (HCCI) Engines
Engine
Type

Mixture
Preparation

Ignition Method

Combustion

SI

Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

CI (Diesel)

Stratified

Compression

Non-Premixed Flame

SIDI (late)

Stratified

Spark

Premixed Flame

SIDI (early)

Nearly
Homogeneous

Spark

Premixed Flame

HCCI

Homogeneous

Compression

Auto-Ignition

Concept
Use overall and locally ultra lean/dilute mixtures for high thermal efficiency and
low burned gas temperature
Combustion is controlled by auto-ignition (chemically controlled) and lacks
flames
1 - 73

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)

Currently a promising research concept limited to low loads; use bigger engines or boost
for higher specific power
Combination of premixed charge and CI

Homogeneous mixtures prevent generation of soot (absence of fuel rich pockets)

No spark autoignition of charge due to high temperature near TDC
No throttling
Use higher compression ratios for efficiency (also required for autoignition)
Use lean mixtures (similar to CI) and/or large amounts of EGR (Dilute mixture) for Low
Temperature Combustion. This significantly lowers NOx emissions.

Nearly constant volume combustion which leads to extreme rates of pressure rise
Compression ratios range from 10 to 21 with ignition controlled by charge temperature
Use cooled or hot EGR to control charge temperature and hence ignition timing (variable
valve timing)
Subject to low combustion efficiencies leading to higher amounts of CO and HC

How about a Gasoline-Powered

HCCI Hybrid?

1 - 74

Variable Valve Actuation (VVA) and HCCI

Concept
Adjust valve timings to get right amount of HOT
residual gas at beginning of compression and
adjust charge temperature to control
IGNITION TIMING near TDC

POSITIVE
OVERLAP

LIFT
EXH

INT

0
720

540

180
CA deg

LIFT

EXH 1

Rebreathing: draw back exhaust gas from

the Exhaust port with additional exhaust
valve event
540

0
720

EXH 2

180
CA deg
NEGATIVE
OVERLAP

LIFT

Recompression: trap burned gas in the

cylinder with negative valve overlap (NVO)

INT

EXH

540

INT

0
720

180
CA deg

1 - 75

Recompression HCCI Video

1 - 76

HCCI CFD Simulation

1 - 77

h. Method of Load Control

Throttling of fuel and air flow together (most current SI systems)
High pumping losses
Control of fuel flow alone (typical diesel, HCCI)
No throttling
Low pumping losses
Variable Valve Timing (VVT) (SI, HCCI)
Controls air flow without throttling (lower pumping losses)
More complicated, expensive

1 - 78

Load Control via Throttling

Regulates load on the majority of current

production SI engines that operate
stoichiometrically ( = 1)
The throttle position controls the flow area
and p across the throttle plate
Density of the air within the intake
manifold and cylinder varies with p
across the throttle plate
new-car365.blogspot.com

Trapped air mass varies with air density

Backflows of exhaust also occur with throttling,
affecting trapped air mass

p adjusted in part with throttle position

Because A/F ratio is fixed (~14.7:1) for

stoichiometric operation with gasoline, the
fuel delivery scales with the mass of air
trapped in the cylinder
Throttling is undesirable because of pumping
losses at part load operation.

m
air

m
air
Pambient

p= pambient - pintake

Pintake

p
RT
1 - 79

Chapter 1.5: Impact of IC Engines on Society

1 - 80

U.S. Energy and Petroleum Consumption Trends

U.S. Energy Information Administration/Annual Energy Review 2009

1 - 81

Energy Balance

Heat balance for a diesel engine

Chevron Products Company

These are called Sankey-diagrams where the width of the arrow

indicates the magnitude of the flow

* All values approximate change with technology

Green Car Congress

1 - 82

Atmospheric Issues Facing Society

UM (2005)

Problematic Emissions

Acid Rain

Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur (NOx/SOx)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHC)
Particulate Matter (PM)

Acid Rain, Smog and Tropospheric O3

Acidification of lakes and soil damage
Forest die-back

Greenhouse Gases (CO2/N2O/CH4)

Inevitable result of burning fossil fuels
Can only be restricted by reducing fuel
consumption

HC + NO + hn
= SMOG

Cannot sell cars unless they meet

emissions regulations!

Foust (2007)

1 - 83

IC Engines as Sources of Pollutants

Large Contributor to Global Emissions
Primary people and commerce mover in
the U.S. and the potential for more*

Most NOx Forms in Lean Mixtures

Needs oxygen and high temperatures
Once formed it is hard to remove

CO and HC Forms in Rich Mixtures

Not enough oxygen to complete reaction

PM Formed Mainly in DI Engines

Burns et al., Scientific

American (2002)

Produced in heterogeneous charge rich

fuel pockets

Most Fuels Contain Sulfur

Diffusion
Burn Phase
in C.I.
Engine

* Currently: 6.5 billion people in the world and only 12% own an automobile.
By 2020: 7.5 billion people and up to 15% (1.1 billion cars)
Adapted from Monkhouse et al. (2000)

1 - 84

Automotive Emission Regulation Trends

UNITED STATES, FEDERAL
Regulation

Year
1970
1973
1975
1981

Tier I (g) 1994

Tier I (d) 1994
Tier II, Bin 8 2009
Tier II, Bin 5 2009
Tier II, Bin 1 2009

(g/mi)
HC
4.1
3.0
1.5
0.41

CO
34
28
15
3.4

NOx

0.25
0.25
0.143
0.108
0

3.4
3.4
4.2
4.2
0

0.4
1.0
0.20
0.07
0

0.08
0.08
0.02
0.01
0

CO

NOx

0.64
0.50
0.50

0.5
0.25
0.2

PM
0.1
0.05
0.025
0.005

PM

3.1
3.1
1.0

Tier II Emissions
Vehicles can be made with
emissions over a range of
bins, however, the
manufacturers fleet
conform to an average
level (around Bin 5)

EUROPE
Europe NOx limits
are about 6x the
US limits. More
conscience about
greenhouse
gases, hence fuel
economy

Euro II 1996
Euro III 2000
Euro IV 2005
Euro V 2008
Source

(g/km)
HC+NOx
0.90
0.56
0.30
0.25

www.epa.gov
Exhaust Emission Certification Standards: Federal Test Procedure: Passenger Cars

1 - 85

EPA Heavy-Duty Engine Emissions Standards

Normalized numbers and approach are similar to passenger cars

Continuous variation of
speeds and loads to
mimic operating cycle

* Transient tests were met, but

engine calibration shifted during
operation at steady-state points.

Detroit Diesel's Series 60 Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine (2007)

1 - 86

Comparison of Four Generations of Cars

Note that emissions have been reduced significantly for a similar weight vehicle while
increasing the power, power density and maintaining or increasing the fuel economy.

1921 Ford
Model T

1979 Chevrolet
Chevette

1988 Chevrolet
Cavalier

2005 Chevrolet
Aveo

HC g/mile

5.49

0.67

0.16

0.057

CO g/mile

41

8.3

1.69

1.34

NOx g/mile

2.2

0.71

0.15

0.09

908 (2000)

1022 (2250)

1248 (2750)

1078 (2376)

Rated Power kW (hp)

15 (20)

52 (70)

86 (115)

77 (103)

Power Density (kW/kg)

0.016

0.051

0.069

0.071

M2

M4

M5

M5

20

27

29

35

Vehicle Characteristics

Test weight class kg (lb)

Transmission
Urban economy MPG

25
Highway economy MPG

29

The real challenge for the future is increasing the fuel economy while
maintaining the low emission standards.
1 - 87

Potter (2006), Diesel Technology Challenges & Opportunities for North America

1 - 88