Property

SOLID

LIQUID

GAS

Shape

Definite

Indefinite
(Assumes
the shape of
its container)

Indefinite
(Assumes
the shape of
its
container)

Volume

Definite

Definite

Indefinite

Expansion on
Heating

Very slight

Moderate

Great

Compressibilit
y

Almost
Almost
Readily
incompressible incompressible compressible

Density

May be high or May be high or Low density

low
low

Viscosity

Not viscous

Viscous

Molecular
structure

Closely
packed,
adhering and
interacting in a
highly
organized
system

Cohere firmly Relatively far

apart
but not rigidly
compared
with
those of
solids and
liquids

Motion among
particles

Restricted

Able to move
freely

More viscous
than liquids

I. MATTER
Matter anything that has mass and takes up
space
Mass amount of matter the object contains
A. Physical States of Matter conditions of
matter with respect to temperature, pressure and
amount of substance
4. PLASMA
gaseous state of matter in which a part or all of
the atoms or moleculesare dissociated to form
ions
consists ofa mixture of neutral particles,
positive ions (atoms or molecules that have lost
one or more electrons), and negative electrons
conductor of electricity, but a volume with
dimensions greater than the so-called Debye
length exhibits electrically neutral behavior
created by applying an electric field to a lowpressure gas, neon fluorescent tubes
created by heating a neutral gas to very high
temperatures
usually doesnot occur on earth naturally except
in the form of lightning bolts
Examples: ionization inside the sun
and stars interstellar gases
the upper layers of the atmosphere of the earth,
producing the aurora

Particles
move
independently
of one
another,
constantly
and
freely in all
directions

1. Pure Substance or Substance has a uniform and definite composition

 cannot be broken down into simpler components by physical means

definite boiling and melting point
a. Element made up of one kind of atom
cannot be broken down to simple substances by chemical means building block of all substances
symbolized using one or two letters, the first of which is capital-ized
exists as a diatomic molecule: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2 Classification:

Metal solid at room temperature (except mercury)

highly lustrous
good conductors of electricity
malleable (can be rolled or hammered into sheets)
ductile (can be drawn into wires)
high melting point and high density
have little tendency to combine with each other to form com-pounds
readily combines with nonmetals
Nonmetal not lustrous
low melting point and density
poor conductor of heat and electricity
combine with another nonmetal to form molecular compounds
Metalloid with properties intermediate between those of a metal and a nonmetal
raw material for semiconductor devices

b. Compound made up of two or more elements chemically combined in definite proportions by mass
can be decomposed through chemical means
atoms of the elements are combined in whole number ratios
General Types
Molecule smallest uncharged individual unit of a compound formed by the union of two or more atoms
Ion positively or negatively charged atom or group of atoms
Cation positively charged ion Anion negatively charged ion
also classified as:
Organic Compound compound with carbon atoms
Inorganic Compound compound of other elements
may either be acid, base or neutral substance
Acid turns litmus paper red, sour in taste and reacts with bases
Base turns litmus paper blue, bitter in taste, reacts with acids and has a soapy or slippery feeling
Neutral substance produced when an acid neutralizes a base
2. Mixture two or more different kinds of substances in varying proportions
can be separated into its different components by physical means
a. Types of Mixtures
Homogeneous Mixture one phase only
completely uniform composition has varying boiling and melting point
known as a solution
Heterogeneous Mixture two phases
nonuniform in composition
components are easily recognizable and physically distinct

Types
Suspension contains particles that tend to settle down and out
Colloid contains particles bigger than those of solutions but smaller than those of suspensions
particles cannot be seen by the naked eye but only with the
aid of an ultra microscope
Properties
Tyndall effect scattering of light by minute particles in its path, such as dust in the air
Brownian movement random movement of microscopic particles suspended in a liquid or gas that
occurs as a result of collisions with molecules of the surrounding medium
b. Ways of Separating Mixtures
Filtration separating fine solids from liquids using filter paper
Decantation settling heavy solids and pouring off liquids
Distillation done by evaporating and condensing a liquid
Crystallization separating components of mixtures
Fractional distillation separating components of crude oil
C. Properties of Matter
1. Physical Property
used in describing the material in terms of taste, odor or color can be observed without chemically changing the
composition of the material observed
Examples: melting point, boiling point, density, luster, specific heat, solubility, conductivity, magnetic properties,
texture, mass, volume, impenetrability, elasticity, flexibility, malleability, ductility and brittleness
2. Chemical Property ability of the substance or its tendency to change into other substances by chemical
reactions
indicates behavior with other substances
involves a change of physical properties as well as composition
Example:Flammability
D. Changes in Matter
1. Physical Change change in physical properties or in the state of matter without an accompanying change in
composition
2. Chemical Change change in the composition of the original substance
formation of a new substance with new properties
expressed in the form of chemical equations (consists of reactants, the starting substances and the products,
the substances produced)
3. Principal Laws Governing Changes in Matter
a. Law of Mass Conservation: In any physical or chemical reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed; it is
conserved. The mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants.
b. Law of Definite Composition (also known as Law of Definite Proportion): A compound always contains two
or more elements combined in a definite proportion by mass.
c. Law of Multiple Proportions: Atoms of two or more elements may combine in different ratios to produce more
than one compound.
2. The Nuclear Atomic Model

a. Nucleus
contains positively charged particles
size = 1/10 000 of the size of an atom
by Rutherford
b. Particles That Make Up an Atom
Particle

Proton (p)

Positively
charged
Together with
the neutron,
Property compose the
nucleus

Neutron (n)

Electron (e)

Uncharged Negatively
charged
Together with
the proton, Outer layer of
compose the the atom
nucleus
Moves
around
the orbit
of
an
atom

Charge

1.60 10-19 C

-1.60 x 10-19
C

Relative
electrical
charge

+1

1.673 10-27
kg

1.675 10-27
kg

Mass
Size

9.11 1031
kg
2 10-12 cm

Joseph
John
Thomson
II. THE PERIODIC TABLE systematic arrangement of the elements according to similarities in properties
Discoverer

Ernest
Rutherford

James
Chadwick

A. Development of the Periodic Table

1. First observed by Dmitri Mendeleev, when he noticed that if the elements known at that time were arrange in order
of increasing atomic mass
2. Early form of the periodic law states that properties of elements werefound to repeat periodically or reoccur in a
general pattern
3. Modern periodic law states that the chemical and physical properties ofthe elements tend to vary periodically if the
elements are arranged in increasing atomic numbers.
B. Classification of Elements
1. Noble Gases Group VIII A
extremely unreactive with relatively little tendency to undergo chemical reactions with other elements or
compounds completely filled outer s and p orbitals (s 2 p6)
Group/
General
2. Representative Elements
Group
Characteristics
Uses
Transition Elements Group B
Name
large block of metallic elements
Useful
in
making
middle of a periodic table between Group VIIA: Salt-formers,
non-metals,
Halogens
plastics
(F),
rocket
fuel
the nonmetals on the right
formed with
and freon refrigerants.
metallic
Bromine is used
elements
for gasoline additives,
photographic films and
dyes. Iodine (I) is used
as a disinfectant and
antiseptic.

Groups IA
to VIIA 3.
Family
that form a bridge in the
the metals on the left and

4. Inner Transition Elements

elements with atomic number 58 through 110
consist of the lanthanide and actinide series
C. Properties and Uses of Families of Elements
Group/
Group
Name
Group
Alkali
Metals

General
Characteristics

IA: Soft, shiny metals

and can react with
other elements to
form compounds
called bases or
alkalis

Uses
Used in dye
manufacturing,
gasoline
and
production of other
chemicals

Group IIA:
Alkaline
Earth
Metals

Harder
than
alkali
metals;
good
conductors of
heat
and
electricity

Used as materials
for
aircraft

Group IIIA:
Aluminum
Group

Contains a
metalloid boron
and metallic
elements ( Al, Ga,
In and Tl)

Used as a low
density
structural material
for pots, window
screens, tools, etc.

Group IVA:
Carbon
Group

Contains
the
nonmetal carbon
which
combines
with
the
other
elements to form
the
organic
compound

The metalloids (Si

and Ge) are used
to make transistors
and
photocells and the
metals (Sn and Pb)
are
the
raw
materials for
can pipes and
kitchen
utensils

Group VA:
Nitrogen
Group

Consists of the
nonmetal;
metalloids arsenic,
antimony and
metabismuth are
less reactive
elements.

Phosphorus used
for
making
matches,
incendiary bombs
and laser bullets
Nitrogen used in
the preparation of
amonia
and
freeze-dry foods

Group VIA:
Oxygen
Group

Consists of three
nonmetals (O2, S
and
Se)
and
metals (Te and
Po)

Useful in industries
like
in
refining
fuel(S),
making
steel,
vulcanizing rubber
and in
photocopying (Se)

D. Features of the Periodic Table 1. s, p, d and f blocks

a. s-block found at the left side of the periodic table. Elements which belong to the s-block have the s-orbital as
their valence shell.
b. p-block found at the right side of the periodic table, have elements which have the p-orbital as their last shell.
c. d-block found at the middle of the periodic table.
They have the dorbital as their valence shell. were
found tooccupy the f-orbital as their valence shells.

2. Periods or Series seven horizontal rows The period or series where an element belongs to indicates the
last main energy level it occupies
Example: Na belongs to the 3rd period, thus the last main energy level it occupies is 3, as shown by its electronic
configuration: 1s22s22p63s1. However, this will not be the case if we have elements belonging to the d and f blocks.
3. Groups or Families vertical columns of elements
a. Group A elements representative elements
b. Group B elements transition elements referred to as the d-block elements
f-block elements Lanthanide or rare earth series and the actinide series
The group number of an element indicates the number of valence electrons in its outermost shell, which in turn
determines the capability of an element to combine with another element.
E. Trends in the Periodic Table
Across a Period (From Left to Right)
Property

Description
Trend

Atomic Radius

One half the distance

between the two nuclei
in two adjacent atoms/
one half the distance
between the
nuclei of the two atoms
in a particular molecule

Reason

Decreasing Shielding effect is

constant
Effective
nuclear
charge
increases

Within a Group (From Top to

Bottom)
Trend

Reason

Increasing Shielding effect is

not constant
Orbital
size
increases
with
increasing
principal quantum
no. n

Ionic Radius

Radius of a cation (+ion )

or an anion (ion)

Decreasing Shielding effect is

constant/removal of
one
or
more
electrons reduces e-e
repulsion/addition of
one or
more e increases e-e
repulsion

Increasing Shielding effect is

not constant / e
removed in the
outermost shell / e
added is in the
outer most shell;
increases
e-e
repulsion.

Ionization
Energy

Minimum
energy
required to remove an
electron
from
a
gaseous atom in its
ground state

Increasing

Decreasing A
greater
separation
between
the
electron and the
nucleus means a
weaker attraction;
ease in
removal of e from
top to bottom.

Electron
Affinity

Increase in effective
nuclear charge, a
more tightly held
outer
electron

Increasing
Energy change that
occurs when an electron
is accepted by an atom
in
the gaseous state

Decreasing
Non-metallic
properties
decreases from top
to bottom

Tendency to accept e
increases from metals
(L) to non-metals (R)

Electronegativity The ability of an atom to

attract electrons

Increasing

Non-metals tend to
accept e, they have
higher
electronegativity
values than metals

Metallic
Property

Related to metals ability

to lose e and attain
positive ions

Decreasing

Increasing Metallic property

increases with
increasing atomic
size
and decreasing
ionization energy

Reducing
Property

The ability of elements to

lose electrons.

Decreasing

Increasing Increase in metallic

property

Oxidizing
Property

The ability of an element

to readily gain electron

Increasing

Non-metallic property
increases from L-R

Decreasing

Decreasing

Oxides

Formed
from
the
combination across a
period of elements
with oxygen gas

Metallic
character
increases
oxides
of
larger
atoms are
more basic
than
the
lighter
ones.

Na2O
and
MgO
oxides (combine with
HO to form a base.
Al2O3 amphoteric
exhibits both basic
and
acidic
properties)
SiO2 , P4O13, SO3 and
Cl2O7 acidic oxides
(combine with
HO to form acids)

As the metallic character of the

elements
decreases,
their
oxides change from basic to
amphoteric to acid.

IV.Chemical Bonding
Elements combine chemically to form compounds.
In every chemical reaction, formation and disintegration of bonds are involved.
A. Classification of Bonds
1. Ionic bond
formed when an atom completely loses or gains an atom
occurs between the reaction of a metal and a nonmetal
substances with ionic bonds are solids at room temperature
Examples:
Mg + Cl Mg2+ + 2Cl MgCl2
K + Br K+ + Br-KBr
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl-NaCl

2. Covalent bond
formed between two nonmetals
no atom gains nor loses electrons; the atoms share electrons Examples:
H + H H H
Cl + Cl Cl Cl
F + F F F
O + O O = O
N + N N N
Compounds can have double and triple bonds. A double bond consists of four electrons while a triple bond is
composed of six electrons.
a. Polar bond
unequal distribution of electrons or unequal sharing of electron

Covalent Bonds
This shows the attraction of a polar covalent and a nonpolar covalent bond. Notice that the electron clouds in a
polar covalent bond is more attracted to the chlorine atom. In a nonpolar covalent bond, electron clouds were
neither attracted to each of the hydrogen atoms.
We can also infer the type of bond in a compound by getting the difference of the electronegativity values of the
individual atoms.

Bonding Range
Electronegativity
Difference

Bond Type

Nonpolar covalent

Up to 1.8

Polar covalent

1.8 and above

Ionic
3. Metallic bond exists as cations surrounded by free moving valence electrons
do not form molecules, nor exist as salts or individual unbonded atoms
a. that hydrogen can only have two electrons.)
b. Place any leftover electrons on the central atom, even if doing so results in more than an octet.
c. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, try multiple bonds. Use
one or more of the unshared pairs of electrons in the atoms bonded to the central atom to form
double or triple bonds.

VI. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

A. Chemical properties observed when one substance reacts with another substance
Examples: combustibility, ability to corrode metals, ability to undergo oxidation or reduction B.
Chemical equation chemists shorthand process of describing the course of a chemical reaction
Reactants substances that enter the reaction process
placed on the left side of the equation
Products new substances that are produced after the reaction placed at the right side of the
chemical equation
Coefficients relative amounts of all substances in numbers, as well as the states of each (in such
case, (s) for solid, and (g) for gas)
Example: The equation below shows the production of sulfur dioxide, SO 2, a major air pollutant from the
combustion of coal.
2 PbS (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 PbO (s) + 2 SO2 (g)

Interpretation
2 moles of solid lead sulfide (PbS) reacts with 3 moles of oxygen gas (O 2) to produce 2 moles of
solid lead oxide (PbO) and 2 moles of sulfur dioxide gas (SO 2).
Arrow symbol indicates the direction of the reaction. This indicates what reaction produces or
yields.
PbS and O2 are the reactants, and PbO and SO2 are the products of the reaction.
1. Balancing Chemical Equations
a. Law of Mass Conservation: Matter is neither created nor destroyed during an ordinary chemical
change.
b. Law of Definite Composition orLaw of Definite Proportion: Elements always combine with
one another in a definite ratio by mass.
2. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Step 1 Write the correct formulas for the reactants and the products. Separate the reactants from the
products using an arrow to indicate the direction of the reaction.
Example: Aluminum reacts with bromine to form aluminum bromide.

ICSEC
Al+3 + Br21 AlBr3
Step 2 The physical states of each substance involved may be indicated. We use the following
symbols for the physical states of substances in a chemical equation:
(g) gas (s) solid
(l) liquid
(aq) aqueous solution
Example:
Al+3 (s) + Br21 (s) AlBr3 (s)
Step 3 Balance the equation. A balanced equation is an equation that contains the same number of
atoms present in both the reactant and product sides. Determine which atoms are
unbalanced by counting the number of atoms of each element before and after the reaction.
Provide coefficients to each element one at a time until the whole equation is balanced.
Example:
Al+3 (s) + Br21 (s) AlBr3 (s)
Reactant
Side
1

Element
Al

Product
Side
1

Balanced

1 (2) = 2
Br2
1 (3) = 3
Unbalanced
Placing 3 as coefficient of bromine and 2 as coefficient of aluminum bromide gives us:
Al+3 (s) + 3Br21 (s) 2AlBr3 (s)
Reactant
Side

Element

Product Side

3 (2) = 6

Br2

2 (3) = 6

Balanced!

Al

2 (1) = 2

Unbalanced!

Placing 2 as coefficient of aluminum balances the whole equation:

2AlBr3 (s)
Reactant
Side
3 (2) = 6

Element
Br2

2Al+3 (s) + 3Br21 (s)

Product
Side
2 (3) = 6

Balanced!

1
Al
2 (1) = 2
Unbalanced!
We now have the balanced equation for the reaction between aluminum and bromine.
C. Evidences of Chemical Reaction
Evidence of Chemical
Reaction

1. Emission of a gas

Example
Exhausts from petroleum
refineries and cars
Dissolving Alka-Seltzer
tablet in water

2. Emission of heat and

light

Burning of magnesium
ribbon
Burning of fuel
Camera flashes

3. Formation of precipitate

Curdling of milk
Production of cottage
cheese

Evidence of Chemical
Reaction

Example

4. Production of mechanical
energy

Explosion of dynamite

5. Production of electrical
energy

Electricity produced by
the
battery of a car
Use of flashlight

6. Change in color

Ripening of
mangoes/fruits

7. Change in temperature

Instant hot and cold

packs
D. Classification of Chemical Reactions 1. Combination reaction two or more substances combine
to form a new substance General form:

Examples:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
CaO + CO2 CaCO3
Fe + S FeS
2. Decomposition reaction substance is broken down into two or more substances. These reactions
require heat mostly.
General Form:

ICSEC

a. Decomposition of metallic carbonate. Metallic carbonates decompose into metallic oxides and
carbon dioxide when heated.
Examples:
CaCO3CaO + CO2
Al2(C

O3)3 Al2O3 + 3CO2

b. Decomposition of metallic hydroxide. Metallic hydroxide (except sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide) decomposes into metallic oxides and water when heated.
Examples:
CaO + H2O
Fe2O3 + 3H2O

2NaCl + 3O2
2KCl + 3O2

H2O + CO2
2

e. Decomposition of metallic oxide. The way metallic oxides decompose depends on the nature of the
metal.
Oxides of metals that are less reactive than copper in the activity series will decompose by mild
heating.
Example: 2Ag2O
4Ag + O2
Oxides of metals that are less reactive than chromium will decompose only when heated with hydrogen
at high temperature.
Example:

Fe2O3

2Fe + 3H2O

Oxides of metals that are more reactive than iron will not decompose by heating even at a very high
temperature.
Example:

Al O
2

no reaction

3. Single Displacement Reaction reaction in which a less reactive element is displaced from a
compound by a more reactive element General form:

Examples: 2Na + CuCl 2NaCl + Cu

Cl2 + 2NaI
Zn + 2HCl

2NaCl + I2

ZnCl2 + H2

4. Double Displacement Reaction reaction wherein the cations of two compounds switch anions to
form new products General form:

Examples: NaOH +HClNaCl + H2O

2NaCl + CuSO4 Na2SO4 + CuCl2
E. Heat in Chemical Reactions
1. Heat of reaction quantity of heat produced by a reaction
2. Activation energy amount of energy that must be supplied to start a chemical reaction
3. Endothermic Reaction absorbs heat
heat can be regarded as a reactant
4. Exothermic Reaction liberates heat
heat is a product
F. Calculations from Chemical Equations
1. Mole Ratio ratio between the number of moles of any two species involved in a chemical reaction
Mole-Ratio Method
Step 1 Balance the given chemical equation, if given an equation which is not balanced.
Step 2 Determine the number of moles of the given substance. Convert the quantity of the given
substance to moles (if it is not given in moles).

ICSEC
moles= grams
molar1molemass
Step 3Determine the mole ratio of the required substance to the given substance. The number of
moles of each substance in the balanced equation is indicated by the coefficient in front of
each substance. Use these coefficients to set up the mole ratio:
mole ratio =

moles of required substance moles of

given substance
Multiply the number of moles of given substance (from Step 2) by the mole ratio to obtain the
number of moles of the required substance.
Step 4 Calculate the required substance in the units indicated in the problem. Multiply the moles of the
required substance by the appropriate factor to convert moles to the units requires.
2. Limiting Reactant and Yield Calculations
a. Limiting reagent regulates the amount of product Steps in finding the limiting reagent:
Ste
Calculate the amount of product (moles of
p1
grams) formed from each reactant.
Ste
The reactant that gives the least amount
p2
of product is the limiting reagent; the other
reactant is in excess.
Ste
Calculate the amount of excess reactant
p3
required to react with the limiting reagent.
The amount of that substance that
remains unreacted is the difference
between the amount of
starting quantity and the amount of excess reactant.
b. Percentage Yield ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield
multiplied by 100
Percentage yield = actual yield 100%
theoretical yield
Theoretical yield would-be mass of the products
calculatedamountof product that can be obtained from a given amount of reactant, according to the
chemical equation exact if the reactants are completely converted to products, without impurities or
incomplete reactions and other side reactions Actual yield amount obtained in the laboratory