matter and energy definitions

-matter- anything that has mass and occupies space

-energy- capacity to transfer heat or do work
-pure substance- matter that cant be broken down
-mixture- 2 or more substances that can be separated by PHYSICAL means
-homogeneous- uniformly distributed, no layers, SOLUTIONS
-heterogeneous- not uniformly, LAYERS
-compound- 2 or more elements, can be broken down by chemical process
-atom- smallest particle of an element
-molecule- collection of atoms chemically bonded together
-chemical bond- energy that holds 2 atoms together
-filtration- process to separate particles in a liquid or gas
-distillation- separation in which the more volatile components are vaporized, leaving the less
volatile (*volatile- more easily vaporized)
-intensive properties- color, hardness, malleability, temperature; properties independent of the
amount of substance present
-extensive properties- length, width, mass, volume; properties dependent on the amount of
substance
-physical property- property that can be observed without changing it
-chemical property- property that can be observed only after a reaction
phase changes
-solid liquid = melting
-liquid solid = freezing
-liquid gas = vaporization
-gas liquid= condensation
-solid gas = sublimation
-gas solid = deposition
units
dekahectokilomegagigatera

10
100
1,000
1,000,000
1,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000

mass = kg
length = m
temp = K
time = sec
electric current = amp (A)
amount of substance = mol
luminosity = candela (cd)

decicentimillimicronanopico-

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
0.000000001
0.000000000001

precision vs accuracy
-precision- how repeatable the measurement is
-accuracy- how close the measurement is to the acceptable value

conversions of celsius
-celsius fahrenheit = (5/9) x (F-32)
-celsius kelvin = C+273

atoms, ions, and compounds definitions

-subatomic particles- neutrons, protons, and electrons in an atom
-cathode rays- streams of electrons
-electron- negative charge; ~0 mass
-radioactivity- spontaneous emission of high energy radiation and particles
-beta particle- a radioactive emission that is a high energy electron
-alpha particle- a radioactive emission with a charge of 2+
-nucleus- positively charged center of an atom that contains almost all the atoms mass
-proton- positively charged subatomic particle within the nucleus; 1 amu
-neutron- neutral subatomic particle within the nucleus; 1 amu
-atomic mass unit (amu)- unit used to express the relative masses of atoms
-Dalton (Da)- about 1 amu
-ion- an atom/group of atoms that have charges
-isotope- atoms of an element with different number of neutrons
-nuclide- a specific isotope of an element
-atomic number- number of protons
-nucleon- proton or neutron in the nucleus
-mass number- number of nucleons in an atom
-average atomic mass- weighted average of masses of all isotopes of an element (natural
abundance x mass)
-law of multiple proportions- the ratio of the 2 masses of one element that react with a mass of
another element to form 2 different compounds

periodic table information

-periods- horizontal rows on the periodic table
-groups- columns on the periodic table
-group 1= alkali metals (1+)
-group 2= alkaline earth metals (2+)
-group 3-12= transition metals
-group 17= halogens (1-)
-group 18= noble gases (0)
-metals- left side of the periodic table up to the staircase
- right side of the periodic table after the staircase and hydrogen
-metalloids- B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te

compounds and ions

-molecular compound- atoms held together by covalent bonds (2 nonmetals)
-ionic compound- ions held together by electrostatic attraction (1 metals, 1 nonmetal)
-cation- positively charged particle created when an atom loses one or more electrons (cat- lose)
-anion- negatively charged particle created when an atom gains one or more electrons (an- gain)
-empirical formula- smallest way a formula can be written

prefixes
monoditritetrapenta-

ions and acids

acetate
ammonium
azide
bromide
carbonate
chlorate
chloride
chromate
cyanide
dichromate
dihydrogen phosphate
disulfide
fluoride
hydride
hydrogen carbonate
hypochlorite
chlorite
chlorate
perchlorate

one
two
three
four
five

hexaheptaoctanonadeca-

six
seven
eight
nine
ten

CH3COO NH4 +
N3 Br CO3 2ClO3 Cl CrO4 2CN Cr2O7 2H2PO4 S2 2FHHCO3 -

hydrogen phosphate
hydrogen sulfite
hydroxide
nitrate
nitride
nitrite
oxide
perchlorate
permanganate
peroxide
phosphate
sulfate
sulfide
sulfite
thiocynate

HPO4 2HSO3 OH NO3 N 3NO2 O 2ClO4 MnO4 O2 2PO4 3SO4 2S 2SO3 2SCN -

ClO ClO2 ClO3 ClO4 -

hypochlorous acid
chlorous acid
chloric acid
perchloric acid

HClO
HClO2
HClO3
HClO4

chemical reactions definitions

-avogadros number = 6.02 x 1023 atoms/molecules/objects/particles in 1 mol
-molar mass- the mass of 1 mole of a substance
-molecular mass- mass of 1 molecule in a covalent compound
-formula mass- amu of an ionic compound
-stoichiometry- relation between the reactants and products in a chemical reaction
-hydrolysis- reaction of water with another material (hydrolysis of nonmetal oxides makes acid)
-hydrocarbons- organic compounds containing molecular compounds composed of H and C
-combustion reaction- a reaction between O and another element to produce heat

% yield = actual yield

theoretical yield

Combustion Reactions- oxygen and another compound

CaHb + excess O2 ---> a CO2(g) + b/2 H2O

solute substance dissolved.

solvent substance doing the dissolving

Molarity = moles solute

liters of solution
MconcVconc = MdilVdil

Exchange reactions
Form a precipitate- an insoluble ionic compound
Form a molecular compound- often water
Form a molecular gas

electrolytes- solutions that conduct electricity

They dissociate into ions for example: NaCl Na+ + Cl-

SOLUBLE- dissociate (example: AgNO3(aq) Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

All ammonium and group 1A (H+, Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, Fr+, and NH4+ salts)
All nitrates (NO3-)
Most chlorides, bromides and iodides
(exceptions: AgCl-, AgBr-, AgI-, Hg2Cl2, Hg2Br2, Hg2I2, and PbCl2, PbBr2, PbI2).
Most sulfates (SO42-)
(exceptions: CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, Ag2SO4, PbSO4, and Hg2SO4)
All chlorates (ClO3-)
All perchlorates (ClO4-)
All acetates (CH3COO-)

INSOULBLE
All phosphates (PO43-) (exceptions: Group 1A, NH4+)
All carbonates (CO32-) (exceptions: Group 1A, NH4+)
All hydroxides (OH-) (exceptions: Group 1A, NH4+)
Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 are slightly soluble
All oxalates (C2O42-) (exceptions: Group 1A, NH4+)
All oxides (O2-) (exceptions: Group 1A)
All sulfides (S2-) (exceptions: Group 1A, NH4+)
MgS, CaS, BaS are slightly soluble.

x 100%

acids H+
strong- dissociate in water (strong electrolytes)
weak- partially dissociable (weak electrolytes)
pH= -log10(H3O+)
acidic= pH less than 7(lower pH=more acidic)
basic= pH greater than 7 (higher pH=more basic)
HCl (hydrochloric acid) is a strong acid- 100% dissociated in H2O
CH3COOH (acetic acid) is a weak acid- 5% dissociated in H2O, 95% undissociated
STRONG ACID
WEAK ACID
HCl
hydrochloric acid
HF
hydrofluoric acid
HBr
hydrobromic acid
H3PO4
phosphoric acid
HI
hydroiodic acid
CH3COOH
acetic acid
HNO3
nitric acid
H2CO3
carbonic acid
H2SO4
sulfuric acid
HCN
hydrocyanic acid
HClO4
perchloric acid
HCOOH
formic acid
C6H5COOH
benzoic acid

bases OHneutralize an acid

high pH= strong base
low pH= weak base
STRONG BASE
LiOH
lithium hydroxide
NaOH
sodium hydroxide
KOH
potassium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
calcium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2
barium hydroxide
Sr(OH)2
strontium hydroxide

NH3
CH3NH2

WEAK BASE
ammonia
methylamine

neutralization
acid + base salt + water
net ionic: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

oxidation- add O2(g) to left side

example: 2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)

reduction- reduce ore to metal (REDOX)-REDuction OXidation

example: (get Cu by itself) CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O
(H2 is the reducing agent (is oxidized), CuO is the oxidizing agent (is reduced))
gain electrons = reduction
loss electrons = oxidation
Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (OIL RIG)

OXIDIZING AGENT
O2
(oxygen)
H2O2
(hydrogen peroxide)
F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
(halogens)
HNO3
(nitric acid)
Cr2O7(dichromate ion)
MnO4- (permanganate
ion)

PRODUCT

O2
(oxide ion)
H2O(l)
(water)
F-, Cl-, Br-, I(halide ions)
NO, NO2, etc
(nitrogen oxides)
Cr3+
(chromium (III) ion)
Mn2+
(manganese (II) ion)

REDUCING AGENT
H2
(hydrogen)
C

PRODUCT
H , H2 O
(hydrogen ion)
CO, CO2
+

M
Mn+
(any metal Na, K, Fe..) (Na+, K+, Fe3+..)

oxidation numbers
pure element= 0
monatomic ion= charge of ion
sum of oxidation numbers= charge on the species
F = -1
Cl, Br, I = -1 (except interhalogens)
H = +1 (except metal hydrides such as NaH and MgH2 which are -1)
O = -2 (except metal peroxides such as MO2 which is -1, and halogen oxides)
increase in oxidation number = oxidation
decrease in oxidation number = reduction
oxidation and reduction MUST BOTH occur for a redox reaction
titration- used to determine unknown concentration (acid or base concentrations usually)

energy- PE (potential energy) KE (kinetic energy)

PE = mgh (mass x gravity x vertical distance)
KE = 1/2mv2 (1/2 x mass x velocity squared)
as temp. increases, so does KE
as mass increases, velocity decreases
E = Efinal - Einitial

systems
-isolated- nothing exchanged
-closed- energy (heat) can transfer but no matter
-open- energy and matter transferred

heat flow
-exothermic- heat flows out of system into surroundings (hand warmer)
-endothermic- heat flows into the system (melting ice)

phase changes
s l = melting (endothermic)
l s = freezing (exothermic)
l g = vaporization (endothermic)
g l = condensation (exothermic)
s g = sublimation
g s = deposition

energy and work

E = q + w
q = heat (heat ABSORBED is POSITIVE) (heat RELEASED is NEGATIVE)
w = work (work done BY the system is NEGATIVE)
calorie (cal) = amount of heat to raise the temp. of 1gram of water 1oC
joule (J) = 4.18J = 1cal

enthalpy
H = E + PV
qp (constant pressure) = H
H greater than 0 (endothermic)
H less than 0 (exothermic)
H = H(products) - H(reactants)

heat capacity
q = mct (mass x specific heat x change in temp (final initial)

hesss law
-sum of all the heats of formation
H sign switched if reaction reversed
H multiplied by coefficient of reaction for answer

gases
compress
expand
miscible (once mixed wont spontaneously separate)
pressure = force (mass x acceleration ) / area
pressure = mass x gravity x height / volume
gravity = 9.81m/s2
pressure = density x gravity x height
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg

boyles law
as pressure increases, volume decreases
P1V1 = P2V2

charless law
V1 = V2
T1
T2
o
K = C + 273

amontons law
pressure vs temp.

avogadros law
volume vs # moles

combined gas law

P1V1 = P2V2
T1
T2
PV = nRT
(pressure)(volume) = (number of moles)(ideal gas constant)(temp.)
R= 0.08206 atm K-1 mol-1, 0.08314 bar K-1 mol-1, 62.36 torr K-1 mol-1, 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
standard temp = 273.15K, 32oF
standard pressure = 1atm
1 mol of gas occupies 22.414 Liters

waves
-help characterize electromagnetic radiation
-a disturbance that travels through a medium from one locations to another
-longitudinal wave

-water wave

-transverse wave

wavelength ()
-distance from crest to crest (top of wave to top of wave) or trough to trough (bottom of wave to
bottom of wave)

amplitude
-height of crest or depth of the trough

frequency (v)
-number of times a wave passes a given point in a certain time
-for wave speed (V) = v (wavelength x frequency)
-for electromagnetic wave use c = v (speed of light = wavelength x frequency)
-c = 3.0 x 108 m/s (m/s = ms-1)

visible light (and other electromagnetic radiation) =oscillating electric & magnetic waves

wave properties
-refraction (light in a prism, an item in water, light in water droplets = rainbow)
-diffraction (parallel waves go through a narrow barrier creating detracted waves)
-inference (constructive- 2 waves are in phase, destructive- 2 waves out of phase)

atomic spectra
-each element emits a unique electromagnetic spectrum
-each element also has a unique absorption spectrum
-energy level- allowed state that an electron can occupy
-electron transitions- movements between energy levels
-ground state- lowest energy level available
-excited state- any energy state above the ground state
-rydberg equation
1
1
1
=

)
2

1
22
7
-R = 1.097 x 10 m-1

photoelectric effect
-the release of electrons from a metal as a result of electromagnetic radiation
-need photons
-work function- E = hvo
-E = hc

-h = 6.626 x 10-34Jgs

bohr model
-applies only to one-electron atoms

quantum mechanics- describe have particles behave like waves

wave equation
-n = principle quantum number (indicates shell and size of orbitals)
-l = angular momentum quantum number (defines shape of orbital and subshell)
-for values of l:
0=s
1=p 2=d 3=f
4=g
-ml = magnetic quantum number (defines position of an orbital)
-ms = spin magnetic quantum number (1/2 or -1/2 are the only possible values)
n
1
2
3

l
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
2
3

ml
0
0
-1 0
0
-1 0
-2 -1 0
0
-1 0
-2 -1 0
-3 -2 -1 0

1
1
1 2
1
1 2
1 2 3

# of orbitals
1
1
3
1
3
5
1
3
5
7

orbitals
-s p d f
1s2
2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6 3d10
4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14
5s2 5p6
6s2

orientation is as follows:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14

electron configuration rules

-pauli exclusion principle- orbitals can contain a max of 2 electrons (must be opposite spin)
-aufbau (build up) principle- electrons fill lower energy levels before higher
-hunds rule- electrons enter orbitals one at a time to maximize equilibrium
-madelungs rule- orbitals fill with electrons as n+1
* Cr and Cu are exceptions!
Cr = [Ar]4s13d5
Cu = [Ar]4s13d10
-element with a (-) charge means ADD an electron
-element with a (+) charge means SUBTRACT an electron

periodic table trends

-as you go DOWN a GROUP
-atomic radius increases
-principle quantum number increases
-ionic radii increases
-as you go (right) ACROSS a PERIOD
-atomic radius decreases
-effective nuclear charge (Zeff which is the attractive force towards the nucleus)
increases
-ionic radii decreases

ionization energy
-energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atom
-INCREASES as you go UP a GROUP
-INCREASES as you go ACROSS a PERIOD

bonds
-ionic = nonmetal + metal (all electrons are given to the nonmetal)
-complete transfer of electrons
-covalent = nonmetal + nonmetal (electrons are shared)
-pure covalent- even charge distribution
-polar covalent- uneven charge distribution
-metallic = metal + metal

lewis theory
-all atoms must form an octet (8 valence electrons) except hydrogen can only have 2 valence
electrons
-# of valance electrons determined by group
-group 1 = 1 valence electron
-group 2 = 2 valence electrons
-group 13 = 3 valence electrons
-group 14 = 4 valence electrons
-group 15 = 5 valence electrons

-group 16 = 6 valence electrons

-group 17 = 7 valence electrons
-group 18 = 8 valence electrons

electronegativity
-INCREASES as you go UP a GROUP
-INCREASES as you go ACROSS a PERIOD
-changes in electronegativity are related to increasing atomic size
-size of orbitals increases as the principle quantum number increases
-atomic size INCREASES as you go DOWN a GROUP

resonance
-condition when valence electrons can be arranged in two or more ways

formal charge
- (# of valence electrons) (# of bonds + # of lone electrons)
[from periodic table]
[from lewis diagram drawn]
*note (# of lone electrons ISNT # of PAIRS)

octet rule
-C, N, O, F almost always obey the octet rule
-B, Be, Al are sub-octets (need to combine with other molecules to satisfy octet rule)
-period 2 elements do NOT exceed the octet rule (never more than 8 electrons)
-period 3 elements DO have expanded octets

valence shell expansion

-period 3 elements can have expanded octets
- most common elements to have this are:
-P -phosphorus
-S sulfur
-combined with larger halogens such as:
-Cl -chlorine
-Br -bromine
-I iodine

odd electron systems (radicals)

-do not obey the octet rule
-odd electron usually bonds to the central atom
-highly reactive
-antioxidants used to combat radicals
-destructive

bond length
-the more bonds, the shorter the length
-single bond is the longest

bond energy
-the more bonds, the higher the energy
-single bond has the least energy

molecular shape
-linear (bond angle of 180o and SN = 2)
-trigonal planar (bond angles of 120o and SN = 3)
-tetrahedron (bond angles of 109.5o and SN = 4)
-trigonal bypyramid (bond angles of 90o and 120o and SN= 5)
-octahedron (bond angles of 90o and SN = 6)

-bent (bond angle of 104o) (lone pairs influence)

(example H2O, has SN of 4, but is bent)
-trigonal pyramidal (bond angle of 107o)
(example NH3, has SN of 4, but is trigonal pyramidal)

computing steric numbers (SN)

-(# of ATOMS bonded to the central atom) + (# of lone PAIRS on the central atom)
example:
[2 atoms bonded to carbon (2 oxygen)] + [0 lone pairs on carbon] = SN 2 = linear
*beware of lone pairs, they influence the shapes.

valence bond theory

- only gives info about geometry
-isnt based off quantum mechanics
-is about the overlapping of atomic orbitals
-single bond = 2 electrons of opposite spin (sigma bond)

orbital hybridization
-when orbitals rearrange to form new atomic orbitals (hybrid oribtals)

hybridization
-explains molecular geometry
-sp = linear
-sp2 = trigonal planar
-sp3 = tetrahedral
-sp3d = trigonal bypyramidal
-sp3d2 = octahedral

molecular orbital theory

-allowed states for an electron moving in the electric field made by the nuclei of atoms
-Aufbaus principle, Pauli exclusions principle, Hunds rule are used for this theory
-bonding orbitals have lower energy than parent orbitals
-antibonding orbitals have higher energy than parent orbitals
-molecule is STABLE when bonding electrons > antibonding electrons

N2 = (1s)2 (1s*)2 (2s)2 (2s*)2 (2p)4 (2p)2 [1s are left out of diagram but need to be
accounted for, for all the electrons] N2 has 10 VE but 14 electrons

bond order
-1/2(# bonding electrons - # antibonding electrons)
example: He2 = 1s2 1s*2 = (2-2) = 0
*note (*) denotes an antibond
-bond order = 0 is unstable

magnetic behavior
-paramagnetism- unpaired electrons are attracted to magnetic fields
-diamagnetism- all electrons are paired therefore are repelled by magnetic fields

intermolecular forces
-ion-ion
- Coulombs Law E is proportional to

(12)

-Q1 and Q2 = the charges of the ions

-d = distance between ions
-increase in charge of ions = increases in forces of attraction
-increase in distance between ions = decrease in forces of attraction

-Hesss Law = adding up all the E

-ion-dipole
-occurs between an ion and partial charge of a molecule with a permanent dipole

-dipole-dipole
-between polar molecules
-hydrogen bonds (very strong interactions)
OH NH FH bonds have very large dipole-dipole interactions
-makes the protein structure
-dispersion forces (London forces)
-caused by the presence of temporary dipoles in molecules
-strength depends on polarizability (how the electron cloud is changed due to
charge) of the atoms
-larger atoms are more polarizable compared to smaller atoms
-boiling points increase with molar mass and polarizability
-the shape of molecules influences the magnitude of dispersion forces

lattice energy (U)

-(for an ionic compound) when energy released when 1 mole of the ionic compound forms from
its free ions in the gas phase
-M+(g) + X-(g) MX(s)
(12)
-U =
(k depends on ionic arrangement)

-determines melting point and solubility

gas laws
1
-KE = 2 2 kinetic energy = (mass x speed2)
-rms =

()

()

- () = ()

root mean square speed = sqrt of

R = 8.314 kgm2/s2molK

3 ( )

rate of x/ rate of y = molar mass of y/ molar mass of x (Grahams law)

nuclear reactions
-radiotracers
-used to follow an element through a chemical reaction
-14C has been used for photosynthesis (14C means carbon dioxide for this)
-614CO2 + 6H2O ---(sunlight & chlorophyll)---> 14C6H12O6 + 6O2
-biological effects
-Rn can cause lung cancer
-Rn half life is 3.82 days and decays as follows:
222
218
4
218
214
4

+ and

+
86
84
84
82
2
2

induced reactions
-nuclear transmutations are initiated from collisions between nuclei
-to overcome electrostatic forces, charged particles need to be accelerated
- can occur by using particle accelerators, linear accelerators, cyclotrons, synchrotrons, colliders
-fission- adding a neutron to uranium-235 separates it into Ba-142 and Kr-91 and 1 neutrons
-requires slow moving neutrons
1
-for every U-235 fission 2.4 neutrons are produced
neutron
0
1
-nuclear reactors- use fission as a power source
proton
1
-use a subcritical mass of U-235
beta particle (electron) 10 or 01
4
4
alpha particle
2 or 2
energy in nuclear reactions
0
positron
1
-large amounts of energy are produced in nuclear reactions
E = mc2
c2 =8.99 x 1016 m2/s2
-if a system loses mass it loses energy (exothermic)
-if a system gains mass it gains energy (endothermic)
-small changes in mass cause large changes in energy
-energy changes in nuclear reactions are much greater than in chemical reactions

radioactivity
-alpha radiation () = loss of 42 from nucleus
-beta radiation () = loss of electron ( 10 ) or positron ( +10 ) from nucleus
-gamma radiation () = loss of photon from nucleus
-neutron radiation (n) = loss of neutron from nucleus
*note:
emission = right side of equation
example of positron emission: 116 115 + 01
capture = left side of equation
example of electron capture: 116 + 10 115

nuclear stability & belt of stability

-proton-proton repulsion is large, as more protons are added to the nucleus proton-proton repulsion
gets larger
-the heavier the nucleus, the more neutrons required for stability
-at Bi (83 protons) the belt of stability ends, making all elements with an atomic # greater than 83,
unstable
-nuclei above the belt of stability undergo beta emission
(an electron is lost- the number of neutrons decreases, the number of protons increases)
-nuclei below the belt of stability undergo electron capture or positron emission
(an electron is gained- the number of neutrons increases, the number of protons decreases)
-even number protons and electrons are more stable compared to odd

half-lives
-not affected by temperature, pressure, and chemical composition
-rate = kN where k= decay constant

-ln
= -kt where N0 = initial number of nuclei and Nt = number of nuclei at time (t)
0
0.693
k=
1/2

organic chemistry
-carbon forms strong C-C bonds
-organic compounds form structural isomers
-polymers (macromolecules)- very large molecules with high molar masses
-oligomers- molecules that contain a few monomers
-monomers- small molecules that bond together to form polymers
-petroleum (carbon compounds)- remains of decaying aquatic plant and animal matter
-hydrocarbon- comprised of carbon and hydrogen (ex: crude oil)
-alkanes- all bonds are single
-alkenes- one or more C=C bonds
-alkynes- one or more CC bonds
*use the ABCs as a trick alkAnes (single), alkEnes (double), alkYnes (triple).
as you go further into the ABCs you get more bonds
-alkane types
*naming alkanes
CH4
methane
1. find longest continuous chain
C2H6
ethane
of carbon atoms (parent
C3H8
propane
name)
C4H10 butane
2. find the groups that arent part
C5H12 pentane
of that chain in step 1
C6H14 hexane
(prefixes)
C7H16 heptane
3. assign numbers to the groups
(start with end closest to
C8H18 octane
groups)
C9H20 nonane
4. if there are 2 or more identical
C10H22 decane
groups use prefixes
2=di, 3=tri, 4=tetra, 5=penta
5. if 2 or more different groups,
put them into the prefix in abc
order

*naming alkenes and alkynes

1. ene = double bond, -yne = triple bond
2. when a chain has 4 or more carbons, the chain is numbered for the position of the multiple bond
3. the longest chain must include the multiple bond
4. compounds with 2 or more double bonds are given suffixes diene, -triene, etc.

ethene

ethyne

-homologous series- set of related organic compounds that differ from each other by the number
of CH2 in their molecular structure
-methylene group (CH2)- a structural unit that can make 2 bonds
-methyl group (CH3)- a structural unit that can make only 1 bond
-common alkyl side groups

-if you have complex substituents put the substituent name in parentheses using numbering as if it
was alone and add yl to the end
-cycloalkanes- tetrahedral shape (because carbon atoms in alkanes are tetrahedral)
-unsaturated hydrocarbons- C-C double and triple bonds are possible (ex: alkenes and alkynes)
-hydrogenation- the reaction of an unsaturated hydrocarbon with hydrogen

isomers
-structural- same atoms, different connectivity, not the same resonance structures
-geometric- atoms in different positions, same connectivity
-cis isomer (Z isomer)- has 2 like groups on the same side of a line drawn through double bond
-trans isomer (E isomer)- has 2 like groups on opposite sides of a line drawn through double
bond
-E= entgegan (trans)
-Z= zusamen (cis)

-chiral- an object cannot be superimposed on its mirror image

-chiral center- occurs when 4 different groups bond to carbon (marked with a *)
-enantiomers- nonsuperimposable mirror images

functional groups
-single bond = ethers and alcohols
-double bond = carbonyl compounds
-ethers- R-O-R (1 oxygen between 2 of the same elements) ethers are polar
-alcohols- contain an OH group (named by replacing last e with ol)
-example: methane becomes methanol

ether formula:

R-O-R

alcohol formula:

R-OH

-polar and form hydrogen bonds

-short chain alcohols are water soluble
-have high boiling point
-more OH groups means a higher boiling point
-classification: *(R = any element, R = any element that isnt the same as R)
-primary (1 R bonded to C-OH) (oxidize to aldehydes, then acids)
-secondary (R and R bonded to C-OH) (oxidize to ketones)
-tertiary (R and R and R all bonded to C-OH)

-methanol- CO(g) + 2H2(g) (300oC catalyst)--> CH3OH(g)

-very toxic (can blind someone)
-used to make formaldehyde, jet fuel, gasoline mixtures
-very corrosive
-ethanol- alcohol in beverages
-fermentation of carbohydrates (using yeast) C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
-stops when alcohol is about 15%
-less toxic compared to methanol
-less corrosive then methanol
-compounds containing OH
-estrone and estradiol (female hormones), testosterone (male hormone), cholesterol
-carbonyl groups- C=O
-aldehyde- C=O plus single bonded R and H
-ketone- C=O plus R and R
-carboxylic acid- C=O plus R and OH
-COOH functional group which reacts with a base to form salts
-they are polar and form H-bonds with each other
-have high boiling points
-ex: formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, benzoic acid, citric acid,
malic acid, tartaric acid
-ester- C=O plus R and OR
-acid + alcohol
-food flavoring agents
-amide- C=O plus R and NH2
-have resonance structures
-ex: kevlar- used for bullet proof vests
*R = any element, R = any element that isnt R

-amines- organic bases

-primary- RNH2
-secondary- R2NH
-tertiary- R3N

primary:

R-NH2

secondary:

R-NHR

tertiary:

R-NR2

polymers- large molecules formed by linking a series of monomers

-polymers are also called macromolecules
-they are classified by the way they respond to heat:
-thermoplastics- soften and flow, then harden on cooling
-thermosetting plastics- initially will soften, but then will form a rigid structure
that wont melt

-addition polymers- monomers add to each other

1. initiation- a peroxide (R-O-O-R) breaks into 2 RO and attacks a monomer
2. propagation- polymer growth
3. termination- 2 radicals combine

-polythylene- the most widely used polymer

-high density polyethylene (HDPE)- linear chains, high density, high molar mass, hard,
used in plastic milk jugs
-low density polyethylene (LDPE)- branched chains, soft, used in making sandwich bags
-cross-linked polyethylene (CLPE)- short CH2 groups form chains, very tough (soda
bottle caps)
-substituted ethylene can be used

how to identify the monomer needed for a polymer

1. draw the polymer
2. identify the repeating unit
3. analyze the monomer-monomer link
4. identify the type of polymer
5. draw the monomer and add chemical groups/bonds to: make a stable molecule and add
back the functional groups lost during the formation of the polymer

other types of polymers

-copolymers- made from mixed monomers
-styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is used to make tires
-acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)- used to make car bumpers
-condensation polymers- release a small molecule, often water
-polyesters- form between molecules with 2 acid groups and 2 alcohol groups

hydrogen bonding
-H bonds between chains force the polymer into a chain of fibers

biopolymers
-proteins- chain of amino acids
-amino acids undergo condensation reactions and lose water molecules
-amide link = peptide link
-small amino acid polymers (less than 50) = polypeptides
-amino acids classified by R substituents
-in red blood cells the protein carries oxygen
-the white blood cells create antibodies (special proteins) to neutralize toxic
substances in the blood (they also create hydrogen peroxide to kill bacteria)
-proteins can repair DNA
-drugs bind to proteins
-polysaccharides- cellulose & starch
-hydrolysis- requires water and an acid

protein structures
-primary- the sequence of amino acids in a chain (determined by DNA sequence)
-secondary- describes the patterns caused by hydrogen bonding such as:
-alpha-helix (H-bonds between N-H and C=O hold helix coils in shape)
-beta-pleated sheet (H-bonds between long segments hold it together)
-tertiary- overall shape of the protein (maintained by side-chain interactions and disulfide
bonds (S-S)

carbohydrates
-sugar- monomer linkage is alcohol
-starch- humans can digest
-cellulose- humans cant digest
-glycogen

saccharides
-polysaccharides
-starch- when heated amylose (links dont alternate) & amylopectin are released
-cellulose- straight chain polymer made up of glucose
-links alternate (every other glucose is turned over in diagram)