EN1040

Electric Circuits: dc, ac

Power Systems
Electrical Machines
Drives Systems

Dr T Meydan
Meydan@cf.ac.uk
E/3.10
Ext: 75923

Books
Integrated electrical and electronic engineering
for mechanical engineers by C. Fraser and J.
Milne, McGraw Hill ISBN 0-07-707973
Circuits, devices and systems by R J Smith,
Wiley

Circuits
Contrast
Electricity as information
Electricity as power element
Situations where electric circuit
Knowledge / theory
is useful
Use of basic logic circuits connection
(interfacing) to external switches, sensors, etc.
Relays / latching arrangements
Measurement of signals; scaling; filtering or
smoothing noise
Power supplies
1 phase or 3-phase a.c. circuits
Motor selection and sizing

Examples of systems with electric circuits

Traction:

Fork lift truck

Motor vehicle

Diesel-electric traction (HST)

Electric traction (TGV, Eurostar)

Power Systems:
Generation-transmission-use
Electric lighting
Heating
Power supplies
Electronic systems
Hi-fi
Mobile phones
Radio
Microwave
TV
Telephone/communications
Computer logic circuits
Disk drive; power supply; indicators;

D.C. circuits
Basic D.C. electric circuit
I D.C. motor e.g. starter motor
Physical structure

II Battery-switch-fuse-lamp
Physical structure

Electric structure

Electric circuit is to enable calculation / solution of

the electrical quantities
The battery voltage (e.g. 1.5V, 9V, 12V) drives
current around circuit.

Ohms Law
Circuit current is determined by Ohms law;
Current through a resistor is proportional to voltage
across it:

R is the resistance of the lamp

I = V/R
We say V is voltage applied to the resistor

% Conductivities at 0oC
%
100
94
72
55
16.2
11.9
3.5
0.062

Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminium
Iron
Nickel
Manganin
Graphite

Resistance
Property of any current-carrying element.
R

X length
area

For copper (Cu)

1.76 x 10 8 ohm metre

Examples of resistance:
Filament lamp (fluorescent lamp)
Cable /wire
Heater
Resistor to control current (used in electronics;
motor control)
Resistive strain gauge
Platinum resistance wire

Note that resistivity varies with temperature.

Multipliers X
Pico
Nano
Micro
Milli
Kilo
Mega
Giga
Tera

x10-12
x10-9
x10-6
x10-3
x103
x106
x109
x1012

p
n

m
k
M
G
T

e.g. 1M is 1,000,000 ohms

1m is 0.001 ohms

10

Current
Electron charge
qe = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs
Definition:
Rate of flow of charge
I = Q/t
Equivalent to flow of water around a closed loop.
(pump, pipes, turbines.)
Current flows THROUGH a circuit element

11

Voltage
Analogous to pressure in a hydraulic circuit.
Measured using a voltmeter
e.g. A battery has a positive and negative terminal.
We can measure the voltage is generated by the battery
called an electromotive force (e.m.f)
Voltage is measured across elements i.e. across a battery;
across a resistor;

Note: ideal voltmeter doesnt draw any current

R ?

Unit of voltage is the volt: V

potential difference between points in a circuit

energy/unit charge. (i.e. Energy = charge voltage)

12

Power
Power dissipated in an element is defined as

PVI

Watts

Derivation:
Voltage = energy/unit charge
Voltage

current = energy/unit charge charge/second

= energy/second
= power

13

This is true for any circuit element

If power is negative the element is generating electrical power
(acting as a source)

14

Power Conversion
Pelec

Pmech

Pmech .Pelec

Pmech

Pelec

Pelec .Pmech
Ploss Pin Pout

Pmech = force x velocity

= mass.g.velocity
For falling mass
= (mass/sec).g.distance.
For hydro turbine

Where

efficiency

15

Temperature effect on resistors

In general the resistivity of a material varies with temperature in a

non-linear manner
0 1 2

However over a limited range of temperatures (depending on the material

we can assume linearity:
i.e. 0 1
1 2 1
or
Where , 0 , , are resistivity values at ,0 , and respectively
Hence for a given resistor or resistive element:
2

R R 0 1

Or

R R 1 2 1
1

is called the temperature coefficiency of resistance. Units are: per

C . For copper
00428 / C

between

0 C and100 C .

The temperature effect is significant for typical operating ranges of

temperature.
E.g. (1) Resistors has resistance of 100 at 20 C ; what is its resistance
at 120 C ?
R R 1 00428120 20
1001 00428.100
1001 428

120

20

142 8

16

(2) Filament bulb resistance can increase by a factor of 3 as it heats up to

working temperature

Cold

Hot

Hence surge current occurs at switch.

Measurement of temperature by resistance. Reconfiguring equation (1)
gives
2 1

R 2 R1
R 1 .

Hence 2 for known 1 , R 2 , R 1 and . This technique is used for

estimating the temperature of electrical machine windings and in the
platinum resistance thermometer ( constant over a wise range for
platinum)

17

Basic Circuit Relations

Series:

V V1 V2 IR 1 IR 2
I R 1 R 2

Overall resistance =

V
R1 R 2
I

Parallel:

I I1 I 2

1
V V
1

V

R1 R 2
R1 R 2

Overall resistance =
1
1
1

R R1 R 2
For 3 resistors in series

V
1

1
1
I

R1 R 2

For 3 resistors in parallel

R R1 R 2 R 3
1
1
1
1

R R1 R 2 R 3

18

More convenient form of relation for 2 resistors in

parallel:
1
1
1

R R1 R 2

Multiply by RR 1R 2 R 1R 2 RR 2 R 1R R R 1 R 2
R 1R 2
1 R2

R R

Parallel resistor examples:

Example (b) shows how to achieve an R value close to a desired figure

using low-tolerance, preferred value resistors.

19

Resistors: colour-codes and preferred values

20

Potential Divider or Voltage Divider

If I 2 is

I1

or I 2 is actually zero, the current in R 2 is also I1 .

V I1 R 1 R 2
V I1 R 2

R2
v

V R1 R 2
e.g. R 2 1

R 1 99

v
1

0 01
V 100

If the divider is loaded i.e. is connected to e.g. an instrument that takes a

significant current, v falls, and above relation no longer holds.

v
0.09

0.009
V 100.9

10% reduction

21

Current Divider

I I1 I 2
(1)
V I1 R 1 I 2 R 2
(2)
2 I 2 .R 1 / R 2
(3)
3 in 1 I I1 I1 .R 1 / R 2

I1 1 R 1 / R 2

I1 I

R2
R1 R 2

Similarly

I2 I

R1
R1 R 2

Power dissipated by resistors

P = V.I

but

V = I.R

P V.V / R V 2 / R Watts
P IR.I I 2 R Watts

Where V is voltage across just the resistor.

I is the current through just the resistor.

22

Circuit Reduction

I1 V 4 0 08A *
R 5
I 2 I1 .

4
0 4A
44

* A means Amps or Amperes

V means Volts

23

Kirchhoffs Laws
(1)
(2)

Sum of currents entering a node = 0

Sum of voltage around a circuit = 0

I3

is leaving the node

E V1 V2 0

E acts clockwise around circuit positive

V1 and V2 act anticlockwise around the circuit negative

24

Circuit solution techniques based on KCL

(Kirchhoffs current law)

At node 1:

I1 I 2 I 3 0

Let voltage at node 1 = V1

4 V1 V1 V1

0
2
3
6
(voltage across 2 is 4 V1 )
Then

(1)

From equation (1), cross multiply by 6,

12 3V1 2V1 V1 0
Hence V1 2V

25

Circuit solution method based on KVL

(Ks voltage law)
Loop current method

Downwards current in 3 resistor = I1 I 2 by superposition.

KVL in loop 1: 4 2I1 3 I1 I 2 0
KVL in loop 2: 2 6I 2 3 I1 I 2 0
Hence I1 and I 2 can be found.
Thevenin source:

26

Behaviour of Thevenin Source

VTh I.R Th V 0

V VTh I.R Th
y c x.m

I.R Th 0
V VTh
When I = 0
When short circuit placed across terminals of Thevenin source
V I.R Th 0
I V / R Th

Slope of output voltage v current line = R Th

Output voltage falls (or droops) by R Th volts per amp of output
current.

E.g. car battery:

VTh 12V say

R Th 0 01

say
27

When I = 100A,

V = 12 1 = 11 volts

If source supplies a regenerating load, I can become negative.

Now V E Th I.R Th

V E Th

Thevenins Theorem
Any d.c. network containing linear, bilateral components (i.e. no
diodes or transistors, etc) and sources can be replaced by a
Thevenin source where V is the open-circuit voltage measured
across a pair of terminals and R is the resistance measured
across the same pair if terminals with the voltage sources
replaced by the short-circuits and any current sources replaced
by open-circuits.
Th

Th

Determination of VTh:

28

3
32
12

V
5
2 4V

VOC VTh 4.

Determination of RTh:

R 'looking in ' R Th
6 2 // 3
23
6
23
7 2

Thevenin Equivalent is:

Application of Thevenins Theorem to finding a

current in a circuit

29

E.g.

Step 1:

break the circuit to make a pair of terminals

Step 2:
terminals

apply Thevenins Theorem to the circuit as seen from the

Step 3:

close the break and calculate the current using Ohms law
I

24
0 33A
72

Step 4:
if currents elsewhere in
the original circuit needed, apply Thevenins Theorem again
with new break location/s or use the current divider formula
backwards

30

Maximum Power Theorem

Delivery of power to a load resistor from a Thevenin source

2
Power in R L is: PL I R L

But I

VTh

PL VTh2 .

R Th

RL
R L R Th 2

Investigate how PL varies as R L is changed

(a)

When

RL RTh

PL VTh2 . R L
(b)

When

R Th2

R L

R L R Th

PL VTh2 . R L

2
L

1
RL

dPL

Can show using dR 0 (treat R Th and VTh as constants) that PL

L
R
maximises when L R 1 i.e. when R L R Th i.e. when R L is matched
Th

to the source resistance R Th .

Note however that the matched condition gives relatively low efficiency:
V.I
50%
VTh .I

31

Voltmeter and ammeter problems

1.

Impact of inserting meters into circuit

(a)

Ammeter
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
In practice ammeters have a low resistance, rA

Without meter

With meter

I1 V / R L rA

I V/RL

When doing measurements check that

rA RL

or deduce what I would

1
have known I , rA and R L .

(b)

Voltmeter
An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance
In practice voltmeters have high resistance, rV

32

Without meter
V VTh .

With meter

RL
R L R Th

V1 VTh .

R L // rV
R L // rV R Th

r R L or deduce what B would

When doing measurements check that V

1
have been knowing V , rV and R L .

33

2.

Measurement of resistance using voltmeter and ammeter

Connection A

Connection B

Ammeter reads high

because of
Connection (a) is better
when is small, giving

Voltmeter reads high

because of
Connection (b) is better
when is large giving

For accurate estimate of R, must allow for i V with connection (a) or

I.rA with connection (b)
Note: good meters have their resistance values shown on the meter or the
meter lid or the meter manual.
Similar problems occur with power measurements using Wattmeters.
Wattmeters have both a voltage sensing element and a current sensing
element. The way in which these are connected into the circuit whose
power we wish to measure will affect the power readings. Connections
can be made as above.

34

Heating in Conductors

Current density
I amps / m 2
A
6
2
Typical value in well-cooled conductors 6A / mm 2 (i.e. 6 10 A / m )
In water cooled conductors etc much higher (is feasible)
Power loss
But

P I2R

I .A and R / A
p / A

Power loss per unit volume

I 2 R / .A
2 A 2 / A / A
2 watts / m 3

The unit of energy is the joule.

If power is constant with time t:
Energy E = P.t
Energy needed to heat a body mass mKg and specific heat s joules/ Kg
is:
E ms joules
Where is the temperature rise in C

P.t ms

Rate of rise of temperature

p
t
v

(Assuming no heat loss)

Hence if all the heat due to I 2 R the conductor is absorbed in increasing

the conductor temperature (i.e. conductor is perfectly insulated with no
escape of heat)
P
t
ms
35

But

m volume density

P
volume.density.s
t
p

d.s

ds

sec

E.g. for copper carrying 6A mm 2

2 1.10 8 m

s 385J

at

3
20 C , d 8800Kg / m

Kg C

6.10 6 2 . 2 1.10 8
8800.385
t

0 223 C

sec
After two minutes t 120 sec
Hence need for cooling

26 8 C

Heat dissipation from hot surface

P k.A S .
Very approximately:
Where
k = emissivity
A S =surface area
= temperature above surroundings
A typical emmissivity figure for convecting surfaces is 53 Watts per

C.m 2 .
A S 1cm 2
E.g. If 100 C ,

P 53.10 4.100 0 53Watts / Cm 2

36