Rays and wavesRAYS AND WAVES > If you can see a beam of light, this is because tiny particles of dust, smoke, of mist inthe air are reflecting ‘some of the light into your eyes. For you to see something, light must enter your eyes. The Sun, lamps, lasers, and glowing TV screens all emit (send out) their own light. They are Iuminous. However, most objects are non-luminous. You see them only because daylight, or other light, bounces off them. They reflect light, and some of it goes into your eyes. You can see this page because it reflects light. The white parts reflect most light and look bright. However, the black letters absorb nearly all the light striking them. They reflect very little and look dark 2 [NZ ES sitror black surface Diffuse reflection Regular reflection Absorption Transmission ‘A. This solar-powered car uses the energy in sunlight to produce electricity for its motor. ‘Most surfaces are uneven, or contain particles that scatter light. As a result, they reflect light in all directions. The reflection is diffuse. However, mirrors are smooth and shiny, When they reflect light, the reflection is regular. ‘Transparent materials like glass and water let light pass right through them. ‘They transmit light. Features of light Light is a form of radiation This means that light radiates (spreads out) from its source. In diagrams, lines called rays are used to show which way the light is going. Light travels in straight lines You can see this if you look at the path of a sunbeam or a laser beam.Light transfers energy Energy is needed to produce light, Materials gain energy when they absorb light. For example, solar cells use the energy in sunlight to produce electricity. Light travels as waves Light radiates from its source rather as ripples spread across the surface of a pond. However, in the case of light, the ‘ripples’ are tiny, vibrating, electric and magnetic forces. Light waves have wavelengths of less than a thousandth of a millimetre (see below). Like other waves, they can be diffracted, but the effect is too small to notice unless the gaps are very narrow, for example, as in a fine mesh. Some effects of light are best explained by thinking of light as a stream of tiny ‘energy particles’. Scientists call these particles photons. Light can travel through empty space Electric and magnetic ripples do not need a material to travel through. That is why light can reach us from the Sun and stars. Light is the fastest thing there is In a vacuum (in space, for example), the speed of light is 300 000 kilometres per second. Nothing can travel faster than this. The speed of light seems to be a universal speed limit. Wavelength and colour When light enters the eye, the brain senses different wavelengths as different colours. The wavelengths range from 0,000 4 mm (violet light) to 0.000 7 mm (ced light), and white light is made up of all the wavelengths in this range. Most sources emit a mixture of wavelengths. However, lasers emit light of a single wavelength and colour. Light like this is called monochromatic light. 41 Give two examples each of objects which RAYS AND WAVES ee wavelength \With transverse waves, lke light, the oscillations (vibrations) are at right angles to the direction of travel Rec Waves spread out as they pass through a gap. The effect is called diffraction. Its only significant ifthe size of the gap is ‘about the same as the wavelength. Wider gaps cause less diffraction <4 Light from a laser is monochromatic (single wavelength and colour). Here, laser light is being used to measure the deflection of the rotating blades on an experimental et engine. @ If the Moon is 384 000 km from Earth, the Sun is. a emit their own light 150 000 000 km from Earth, and the speed of light is b are only visible because they reflect light from 300 000 kris, calculate the time taken for light to another source. travel from 2 What evidence is there that light travels in straight a the Moon tothe Earth —b the Sun to the Earth lines? 5 How do waves of violet light differ from waves of 3. What happens to light when it strikes red light? ‘a white paper black paper? 6 What is meant by monochromatic light? Related topics: speed 2.01; energy 4.04: colours in white ight 7.04; electromagnetic waves 7.4%; photons 11.104 RAYS AND WAVES angle of | angle of imnadence | reflecion incident ~ reflected Definitions ‘Angle of incidence: this is the angle between the incident ray and the normal, Angle of reflection: ths is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal ‘A. The word AMBULANCE is laterally inverted so that it reads correctly ‘when seen in a driving mirror. Reflection in plane mirrors (1) The laws of reflection When a ray of light strikes a mirror, itis reflected as shown on the left. The incoming ray is the incident ray, the outgoing ray is the reflected ray, and the line at right-angles to the mirror’s surface is called a normal, The mirror in this case is a plane mirror. This just means that it isa flat mirror, rather than a curved one, There are two laws of reflection. They apply to all types of mirror: 1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. 2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane. Put another way, light is reflected at the same angle as it arrives, and the two rays and the normal can all be drawn on one flat piece of paper. Image in a plane mirror bie imac 7} ww a ot Ae: te” sr ed Ee In the diagram above, light rays are coming from an object (a lamp) in front of a plane mirror. Thousands of rays could have been drawn but, for simplicity, only two have been shown. After reflection, some of the rays enter the girl’s eye. To the girl, they seem to come from a position behind the mirror, so that is where she sees an image of the lamp. Dotted lines have been drawn, to show the point where two of the reflected rays appear to come from. The dotted lines are not rays. ‘The image seen in the mirror looks exactly the same as the object, apart from ‘one important difference. The image is laterally inverted (back to front). Real and virtual images Ina cinema, the image on the screen is called a real image because rays from the projector focus (meet) to form it. The image in a plane mirror is not like this. Although the rays appear to come from behind the mirror, no rays actually pass through the image and it cannot be formed on a screen. An image like this is called a virtual image.RAYS AND WAVES Finding the position of an image in a mirror The position of an image in a plane mirror can be found by experiment: object pin Put a mirror upright on a piece of | | Line up one edge of a ruler with the image paper. Put a pin (the abject) infront | J of the pin. Draw 2 line along the edge to ‘fit, Mark the positions ofthe pin » Then repeat with the ruler and the mirror. Take away the mirror, pin, and rule. Extend the two lines to find out where] ‘they meet. Ths s the postion of the image. The result of the experiment can be checked like this, Ifa second pin is put behind the mirror, in the position found for the image, the pin should be in line with the image, as shown on the right. And it should stay in line thi roe when you move your head from side to side. Scientifically speaking, there should be no parallax (no relative movement) between the second pin and the image when you change your viewing position. If there is relative movement (parallax), then the two are not in the same position. 7 image of object pin Ifa second pin is put in exactly the same position as the image Rules for image size and position When a plane mirror forms an image: © The image is the same size as the object. of the fst pin it shoud stayin © The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. line with the image, wherever © Aline joining equivalent points on the object and image passes through you view it from. the mirror at right-angles, 1 a Copy the diggram on the right. Draw in the image in its correct position, |b From the object arrow’s tip, A, draw two rays which | reflect from the mirror and go into the person's eye, € The image cannot be formed on a screen. What name is given to this type of image? d Can the person see an image of the arrow's tail, B7 If | not, why not? 2 Aman stands 10 m in front of a large, plane mirror. How far must he walk before he is 5 m away from his image? Related topics: reflection of waves 6.02; real and virtual mages formed by lenses 7.07-7.08a RAYS AND WAVES LY VEE ZED Reflection in plane mirrors (2) Finding an image position by construction In the diagrams below, O is a point object in front of a plane (flat) mirror. | Here are two methods of finding the position of the image by geometric construction using a protractor. In Method 1, you deduce the position from the paths of two rays, but Method 2 is simpler! Method 1 LF image Gq From the object, O, draw a ray which strikes the mirror at an angle of incidence of 35° (or value of your own choosing close to this). 2. Construct a normal (a line at right-angles to the mirror's surface) at the point where the ray strikes the mirror. 3. Draw the reflected ray from this point, so that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. 4 Repeat steps | to 3 for a second ray with an angle of incidence of 55° (or value of your own choosing close to this). 5 Extend the two reflected ray backwards until they intersect (meet). The ees point of intersection, I, is the image position. Sy altiness | Method 2 ‘This method is illustrated on the left. It uses the fact that the position of the image behind the mirror matches that of the object in front, 1 From the object, O, draw a line which passes through the mirror's surface at right angles. Extend this line well beyond the mirror. Measure the distance from the object to the mirror. At an equal distance behind the mirror, mark a point on the extended line. This point, I, is the image position. image| | | Reflection problem Example A horizontal ray of light strikes a plane mirror whose surface is angled at 55° to the ground, as shown below left. a What is the angle between the reflected ray and the ground? b If the mirror is re-angled to reflect the ray vertically upwards, what is the new angle between the surface of the mirror and the ground? RAYS AND WAVES inedent ray ‘Inthe diagram above left, angles a, b, and c have also been labelled to help with the calculation. The incident ray is parallel to the ground, so the angle between the reflected ray and the ground is equal to b + ¢. {As the incident ray is parallel to the ground: a = 55° Buta +b=90" — So:b = 35° {As the angle of reflection = angle of incidence: ¢ = b So:¢ = 35° Therefore: b + ¢ = 70° So, the angle between the reflected ray and the ground is 70°. b The situation is shown above right, where angles a, b, and all now have new values. As before: a + b = 90° andc = b. xis the unknown angle between the surface of the mirror and the ground. It is equal to a. As the ray is reflected vertically:b +¢= 90° Sob and are both 45° Buta +b=90" So:a=45* Therefore: x = 45° So, the angle between the surface of the mirror and the ground must be changed to 45°, Related topics: reflection of waves 6.02 Reflection essentials e roca angleof_| angle of incidence | flection reflected tL | ray ‘When light is reflected from 2 mirror, the angle of incidence is equal tothe angle of reflectionRAYS AND WAVES Definitions e ‘Angle of incidence: this is the angle between the incident ray and the normal ‘Angle of refraction: this isthe angle between the refracted ray and the normal Refraction of light The ‘broken pen illusion on the left occurs because light is bent by the glass block. The bending effect is called refraction. ‘The diagram below shows how a ray of light passes through a glass block. The line at right -angles to the side of the block is called a normal. The ray is refracted towards the normal when it enters the block, and away from the normal when it leaves it. The ray emerges parallel to its original direction (provided the block has parallel sides). Refraction would also occur if the glass were replaced with another transparent material, such as water or acrylic plastic, although the angle of refraction would be slightly different. The material that light is travelling through is called a medium. nota incdent 1 % ‘ I a rae angle of | incidence | i as incident ey | Nn ' 1 ray emerges | i parallelto i ineident ray qengle fotretaction Real and apparent depth Because of refraction, water (or glass) looks less deep than it really is. Its apparent depth is less than its real depth. This diagram shows why: light refracted | Why light is refracted Scientists explain refraction as follows. Light is made up of tiny waves. These travel more slowly in glass (or water) than in air. When a light beam passes from air into glass, as shown on the left, one side of the beam is slowed before | the other. This makes the beam ‘bend’.Refractive index Ina vacuum (empty space), the speed of light is 300 000 kinJs. In air, itis effectively the same, However, in glass, light slows to 200 000 kmis. The refractive index of a medium is defined like this: speed of light in vacuum refractive index ~ ad of light in medium So, in the case of glass: 300.000 km/s _ j 5 refractive index = 3001 =15 fractive index = 309 990 kms Some refractive index values are given on the right. The medium with the highest refractive index has the greatest bending effect on light because it slows the light the most Refraction by a prism A prism is a triangular block of glass or plastic. The sides of a prism are not parallel. So, when light is refracted by a prism, it comes out in a different direction, It is deviated, If a narrow beam of white light is passed through a prism, it splits into a range of colours called a spectrum, as shown below. The effect is called dispersion. Itoccurs because white is not a single colour but a mixture of all the colours of the rainbow. The prism refracts each colour by a different amount, o For questions 1b and 3, you will need to refer to the table at the top of the page. Assume that. ‘the speed of light in a vacuum is 300 000 kms. RAYS AND WAVES medium refractive index diamond 242 lass (crown) 1152 acrylic plastic 1.49 (Perspex) water 133 ‘A. The above figures are based on more accurate values ofthe speed of light than those used on the lft, The refractive index of glass varies depending on the type of glass Refractive index also varies sightly depending on the colour ofthe light, “4 Most people think that they can see about six colours in the spectrum cof white light. However, the spectrum is really a continuous change of colour from beginning to end, Red light is deviated (bent off-course) least by a prism. Violet light is deviated most. However, in this diagram, the difference has been exaggerated. ait | oss 4a Copy the diagram on the right. Draw in and label the normal, the refracted ray, the angle of incidence, and the angle of refraction. b How would your diagram be different if the ray was passing into water rather than glass? 2 a When white light passes through a prism, it spreads into a spectrum of colours. What is. the spreading effect called? b Which colour is deviated most by a prism? © Which colour is deviated least? 3 Calculate the speed of light in water. Related topes: refraction of waves 6.02; colour and wavelength 7.0%; ight waves 7.03; refraction calculations 7.08RAYS AND WAVES The inside surface of water, glass, or other transparent material can act like a Refraction essentials 8 perfect mirror, depending on the angle at which the light strikes it. ‘The bending of ight when it ‘The diagrams below show what happens to three rays leaving an underwater ‘passes from one medium lamp at different angles. Angle c is called the eritical angle. For angles of atepel co eno Deri ea) incidence greater than this, there is no refracted ray. All the light is reflected. role aeeeres a ‘The effect is called total internal reflection. change in the speed of the light, refracted ray as imi etc ay 10 refracton water reflected rey i total ineral baer rellecton 7 angle of incidence c= tical angle angle fincidence greater than € ‘The ray splits ino a refracted ray and a_——_The rays splits, but the refracted ray only Theres no refracted ray. The surface ofthe weaker reflected ray just eaves the surface. water acts ike @ perfect miro. ‘The value of the critical angle depends on the material. For example: ical angle lass (crown) 4) diamond 24 Reflecting prisms In the diagrams below, inside faces of prisms are being used as mirrors. Total rm internal reflection occurs because the angle of incidence on the face (45°) is greater than the critical angle for glass or acrylic plastic. ‘A Periscope This is an instrument Rear reflectors (on cars and cycles) A Binoculars The lens system in each ‘barre!’ {or looking over obstacles. Prisms The direction ofthe incoming light is produces an upside-down image. Reflecting reflect the light, although they can be reversed by two total internal reflections, prisms are used to turn it the right way up. be replaced with morsRAYS AND WAVES Optical fibres Optical fibres are very thin, flexible rods made of special glass or transparent plastic, Light put in at one end is total internally reflected until it comes out of the other end, as shown below. Although some light is absorbed by the fibre, it ‘comes out almost as bright as it goes in ~ even if the fibre is several kilometres long. A Single optical fibre In the type shown above, the inner ‘A Bundle of optical fibres Provided the fibres are in the same glass core is coated with glass of a lower refractive index. positions at both ends, a picture can be seen through them. ‘A Optical fibres can carry telephone cals. The signals are coded A This photograph was taken through an endoscope, an «and sent along the fibre as pulses of laser light. Fewer booster _instrument used by surgeons for looking inside the body. stations are needed than with electrical cables, ‘An endoscope contains a long, thin bundle of optical fibres. 4. Glass has a critical angle of 41°. Explain what this means, 2 a Copy and complete the diagrams on the right to show where each ray will go after it strikes the prism. | b Wine prsms on the ight were transparent angular >| ) tans ied wth water would total nteral ection La ) ‘ ois still occur? If not, why not? 7 3 a Give two examples of the practical use of optical fibres, < y Give two other examples of the practical use of total internal reflection Related topics: refraction 7.04; calculating the entical angle 7.06, optical resin communications 743RAYS AND WAVES Snell's law Refraction essentials J) When light is refracted, an increase in the angle of incidence i produces an | increase in the angle of refraction r. In 1620, the Dutch scientist Willebrord | Snell discovered the link between the two angles: their sines are always in proportion. When light passes from one medium into another: | This is known as Snell’s law. It is illustrated by these examples: Aight ray bends as it enters a lass block. The bending effects called refraction, it occurs because light waves low down when they | | | ass from air nto giass or other | | | oa medium (se 704) Passing from ass backin toa, they would speed up again. So ifthe ray inthe agram were reversed, it would sin tS? | 026 snast on sin6or _ 087 pass backinto the airalong the | ante OF sna 047 same path asit came in. y =15 215 | Refractive index ‘The refractive index of a medium is defined like this: Ina vacuum, the speed of light is 300 000 km/s ~ and effectively the same in air. In glass, it drops to 200 000 km/s. So, the refractive index of glass is 300 000 km/s + 200 000 km/s, which is 1.5. This is the same as the value of sini + sin rin the diagrams above. Here is an altern: Measuring refractive 8 index Tofind the refractive index of, say. | alas, you could direct aray (rom | a tay box) ata glass block, mark the postion ofthe incdent and refracted rays, measure thet angles, then use the equation on the right semi-citeuiar block is j useful for experiments like this. Hf the ray passes through point O below, no bending occurs at the circular face, so itis easier to vary and measure the angles definition of refractive index: Example Light (in air) strikes water at an angle of incidence of 45°. If the refractive index of water is 1.33, what is the angle of refraction? in 4 Applying the above equation: 1,33 = I-48 Rearranged, this gives sin r = sin 45°/1.33. When calculated, this gives _/ | sin = 0.532. So the angle of refraction r is 32°,Calculating the critical angle* RAYS AND waves | : refracted : ' 1 i ' I It 1 1 t 1 1 i | rfracted 1 air iy | no refraction ass a fi (i 1 1 i i 1 1 ! arene reflected reflected internal ry ry reflecion i =angle of incidence c= critical angle angle of incidence greater than ¢ In the diagrams above, rays are travelling from glass towards air at different angles. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, there is, no refracted ray. All the light is reflected, ‘There is total internal reflection, Knowing the refractive index of a material, the critical angle can be calculated. For example: On the right, the middle diagram above has been redrawn with the ray direction reversed, This time, the angle of incidence is 90°, and angle cis now the angle of refraction. If the refractive index of glass is 1.5: refractive index = S290" = 1 {as sin 90° 1 rearranging: =, = 067 ging sine = 0 ¢, the critical angle of glass, = 42°. Note: this figure differs slightly from that in Spread 7.03 because a simplified value for the refractive index of glass has been used in the calculation. From the above calculation, it follows that the critical angle c of any medium. ‘can be calculated using this equation: Related topies: refraction and refractive index 7.04 total intemal flection 7.05 ‘4. Compare this with the middle ciagram at the top of the page. ‘4 When a diamond is cut, the facets (faces) are angled so that they produce total internal reflection. Reflected light gives the diamond its ‘sparkle’Warn Lenses (1) Lenses bend light and form images. There are two main types of lens, The one diagram on the left shows some examples of each. tees Convex lenses These are thickest in the middle and thin round the edge. When rays parallel to the principal axis pass through a convex lens, they are bent inwards. The point F where they converge (mect) is called the prineipal focus. Its distance from the centre of the lens is the focal length. A convex lens is coe known as a converging lens. Rays can pass through the lens in either direction, so there is another principal focus F' on the opposite side of the lens and the same distance from it. Convex (converging) lens Concave (i principal Tous r principal axis focal lent Concave lenses* These are thin in the middle and thickest round the edge. How lenses bend light 8 When rays parallel to the principal axis pass through a concave lens, they are bent outwards. The principal focus is the point from which the rays appear to Se TA diverge (spread out). A concave lens is a diverging lens. 1 Real images formed by convex lenses In the diagram below, rays from a very distant object are being brought to a focus by a convex lens. Rays come from all points on the object. However, for simplicity, only a few rays from one point have been shown. Together, the day aerate aaa) rays form an image which can be picked up on a screen. An image like this is, light ast goes in and again sit called a real image. It is formed in the focal plane. ‘comes out. Expensive lenses have | In a camera, a convex lens is used as below to form a real image on a piece of special coatings to reduce the film or CCD. The image in the eye is formed in the same way. k The lens is used to make focusing adjustments; the process is called accommodation. The lens does not move backwards and forwards as in a camera, Instead, itis flexible, and its shape is changed by the ring of eiliary screen muscles around it. When an object moves closer to the eye, the lens thickens so that the image stays in focus on the back. fay fom a stant pint are efectively parallel. convex lens makes them converge at ts principal focus F Peni ia ifthe rays come from a dser ‘ ; point, the lens makes them 7 converge further away from it The iris is the bit that makes your eyes brown or blue. Its job is to control the amount of light entering the eye. The light passes through a gap in the middle, called the pupil. If you walk into a dark room, the pupil automatically becomes bigger to let in more light. ‘The retina is the ‘screen’ on the back of the eye where the image is formed. It Ifa thickerlens is used, its focal «contains over 100 million light-sensitive cells. These react to light by sending fenath is shorter, so the rays, nerve impulses (electrical signals) along the optic nerve to the brain. The converge nearer the lens brain uses the nerve impulses to form a view of the outside world. The image formed when rays ‘The image on the retina is upside-down. However, the brain is so used to this converge is called a real image. view, that it thinks of it as the right way up!RAYS AND WAVES Correcting defects in vision Short sight Long sight Correcting short sight Correcting long sight concave lens convex lens ‘With many people, changes in the shape of the eye lens are not enough to produce sharp focusing on the retina. To overcome the problem, spectacles or contact lenses have to be worn, Short sight In a short-sighted eye, the lens cannot be made thin enough, for looking at distant objects. So the rays are bent inwards too much, ‘They converge before they reach the retina. To correct the fault, a concave (diverging) lens is placed in front of the eye. Long sight In a long-sighted eye, the lens cannot be made thick enough for looking at close objects. So the rays are not bent inwards enough. When they reach the retina, they have still not met. To correct the fault, a convex (converging) lens is placed in front of the eye. From middle age onwards, the eye lens becomes less flexible and loses its ability to accommodate for objects at different distances. To overcome this difficulty, some people wear bifocals - spectacles whose lenses have a top ‘A This person's eye has been fitted part for looking at distant objects and a bottom part for close ones. If the ‘witha plastic lens because the natural lens had developed too many cloudy patches, called cataracts spectacles have progressive lenses, the change is continuous from top to bottom Related topics: convex and concave lenses, real images, ay diagrams 7.07-7.08, camera’. 098 RAYS AND WAVES 8 Light waves belong to a whole family of electromagnetic waves. These have Wave essentials several features in common. For example: Waves radiate (spread out) from | @ They can travel through a vacuum (for example, space). This is usually called the speed of light, although it is the speed of all electromagnetic waves. ‘They are transverse waves ~ their oscillations are at right-angles to the direction of travel. It is electric and magnetic fields that are oscillating, not their source. They are a form of | © They travel through a vacuum at a speed of 300 000 kilometres per second. material. © They transfer energy. A source loses energy when it radiates With transverse waves es electromagnetic waves. A material gains energy when it absorbs them. above, the oscillations (vibrations) are at right-angles to the The electromagnetic spectrum direction of travel ‘The number of waves sent out per second is called the frequency. It is measured in hertz (He) The full range of electromagnetic waves is called the electromagnetic spectrum. It is shown in the chart on the opposite page. The range of wavelengths is huge. At one end are the longest radio waves with wavelengths of several kilometres. At the other end are the shortest gamma rays with wavelengths of less than one-billionth of a millimetre. Where electromagnetic waves come from All matter is made of atoms, Atoms are themselves made up of a central nucleus with tiny particles called electrons orbiting around it. The nucleus. and the electrons are electrically charged. Sometimes, electrons can escape from their atoms. For example, when an electric current passes through a wire, the current is a flow of free electrons. > eecons Electromagnetic waves are emitted (sent out) whenever charged particles oscillate or lose energy in some way. For example, the vibrating atoms in a ‘A.inan stom, the electrons have ‘hot, glowing bulb filament emit infrared and light, and an oscillating electric negative (~) charge and the nucleus CtfTent emits radio waves. The higher the frequency of oscillation, or the has positive (+) charge greater the energy change, the shorter the wavelength of the electromagnetic Hlectromagnetic waves are emitted waves produced. whenever charged particles oscilate cr lose energy. ee For any set of moving waves speed = frequency x wavelength (ms) tH) (rm) If the speed of the waves is unchanged, an increase in frequency means a decrease in wavelenath, and vice versa 1000 Hz = 1 kilohertz (kHz) 1,000 000 Hz = 1 megahertz (Miz)RAYS AND WAVES The electromagnetic spectrum frequency | wavelength type of examples, uses, a te 7 clectromagnetc radiation a otto 10 eae 1 long wave long-distance AM rasio Lio 10 meu wave loc AM aio bio ww short wave amateur ado 10 ato t : var AMradio 10! 10 ne TW broadcasts 10 Lo? microwaves tmobile phones; TV and communications ‘Btaites telephone ns roar 10! heating eect used in miconave ovens wo radiant heaters and gis . TWend video remote convolers 10! secu arms ad amps “ght ales nop es ot a. only typeof ation vibe tothe ye coe ving, sin conc and ye damage 16 itr causes fuorescence : aa {makes some chemicals glow) Kisbacera 10". 10? 1 | xeays used for Xray photography ay Causes thorexcence ses cancer, ut can il eance cals 10 Lio 10 Lio gamma emits by radactve mates thes and eet as fox aye 1 Used fostering medal equpment le 2a food 10° wy} = DANGER 1 RADIATION =r = 1 000 01 For more information about the different types of electromagnetic radiation, see the next spread, 7.12. Related topics: thermal radiation 5.08; transverse waves, frequency and wavelength 601; radar 6.04; Ught waves 7.03, light spectrum 7.04; gamma rays 712 and 43.02; atoms and electric charge 8.04,@, RAYS AND WAVES LY VEE ETD Electromagnetic waves (2) Radio waves Stars are natural emitters of radio waves. However, radio waves can be produced artificially by making a current oscillate in a transmitting aerial (antenna). In a simple radio system, a microphone controls the current to the aerial so that the radio waves ‘pulsate’. In the radio receiver, the incoming pulsations control a loudspeaker so that it produces a copy of the original sound, Radio waves are also used to transmit TV pictures. ‘4 Radio waves of long and mecium Long and medium waves will dffract (bend) around hills, so a radio can wavelengths difract (bend) round still receive signals even if a hill blocks the direct route from the transmitting bls. aerial. Long waves will also diffract round the curved surface of the Earth. VHF and UHE waves have shorter wavelengths. VHF (very high frequency) is used for stereo radio and UHF (ultra high frequency) for TV broadcasts. These waves do not diffract round hills. So, for good reception, there needs to be a straight path between the transmitting and receiving aerials. Microwaves have the shortest wavelengths (and highest frequencies) of all radio waves. They are used by mobile phones, and for beaming TV and telephone signals to and from satellites and across country. Like all electromagnetic waves, microwaves produce a heating effect when absorbed. Water absorbs microwaves of one particular frequency. This principle is used in microwave ovens, where the waves penetrate deep into food and heat up the water in it. However, if the body is exposed to microwaves, they can cause internal heating of body tissues, Infrared radiation and light When a radiant heater or grill is switched on, you can detect the infrared radiation coming from it by the heating effect it produces in your skin. In fact, all objects emit some infrared because of the motion of their atoms or molecules. Most radiate a wide range of wavelengths. ‘A This dish receives microwaves from a satelite. As an object heats up, it radiates more and more infrared, and shorter wavelengths. At about 700 °C, the shortest wavelengths radiated can be detected by the eye, so the object glows ‘red hot’. Above about 1000 °C, the whole of the visible spectrum is covered, so the object is ‘white hot’, Short-wavelength infrared is often called ‘infrared light, even though it is invisible. However, strictly speaking, light is just the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the eve. high << wavelength > ow ‘A Infrared and ultraviolet can be detected just beyond the two ends of the visible part of the spectrum.Security alarms and lamps can be switched on by motion sensors that pick up the changing pattern of infrared caused by an approaching person. At night, photographs can be taken using infrared, In telephone networks, signals are sent along optical fibres as pulses of infrared ‘light’. And remote controllers for TVs and video recorders work by transmitting infrared pulses Ultraviolet radiation Very hot objects, such as the Sun, emit some of their radiation beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. This is ultraviolet radiation, It is sometimes called ‘ultraviolet light’, even though itis invisible, ‘The Sun's ultraviolet is harmful to living cells. If too much penetrates the skin, it can cause skin cancer. If you have a black or dark skin, the ultraviolet is, absorbed before it can penetrate too fat: But with a fair skin, the ultraviolet, can go deeper. Skin develops a tan to try to protect itself against ultraviolet. Ultraviolet can also damage the retina in the eye and cause blindness. As ultraviolet is harmful to living cells, itis used in some types of sterilizing equipment to kill bacteria (germs). Fluorescence Some materials fluoresce when they absorb ultraviolet: they convert its energy into visible light and glow. In fluorescent lamps, the inside Of the tube is coated with a white powder which gives off light when it absorbs ultraviolet. The ultraviolet is produced by passing an electric current through the gas (mercury vapour) in the tube, X-rays X-rays are given off when fast-moving electrons lose energy very quickly. For example, in an X-ray tube, the radiation is emitted when a beam of electrons hits a metal target. Short-wavelength X-rays are extremely penetrating, A dense metal like lead can reduce their strength, but not stop them. Long- wavelength X-rays are less penetrating, For example, they can pass through flesh but not bone, so bones will show up on an X-ray photograph. In engineering, X-rays can be used to take photographs that reveal flaws inside metals ~ for example faulty welds in pipe joints. Airport security systems also use them to detect any weapons hidden in luggage. All X-rays are dangerous because they damage living cells deep in the body and can cause cancer or mutations (genetic change). However, concentrated beams of X-rays can be used to treat cancer by destroying abnormal cells. Gamma rays Gamma rays come from radioactive materials. They are produced when the nuclei of unstable atoms break up or lose energy. They tend to have shorter wavelengths than X-rays because the energy changes that produce them are greater, However, there is no difference between X-rays and gamma rays of the same wavelength, Like X-rays, gamma rays can be used in the treatment of cancer, and for taking X-ray-type photographs. As they kill harmful bacteria, they are also used for sterilizing food and medical equipment. RAYS AND WAVES A. Sunbeds use ultraviolet to cause tanning in some types of skin r 44 An Xray photograph Uttraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays cause ionization ~ they strip electrons from ators in their path. The atoms are left with an electric charge, and are then known as ions Tonizing radiations lonization is harmful because it an killor damage living cells, or make them grow abnormally a5. Related topics: infrared and thermal radiation 5.08; diffraction 6.02; light spectrum 7.04; optical flores 7.05 and 7.43; X-ray tube 10.08; radioactivity, gamma rays, and fonization 44.02,RAYS AND WAVES. ‘Telephone, radio, and TV are all forms of telecommunication — ways of ‘transmitting information over long distances. The information may be sounds, pictures, or computer data. The diagram below left shows a simple telephone system. An encoder (the microphone) turns the incoming information (speech) into a form which can be transmitted (electrical signals). The signals pass along the transmission path (wires) to a decoder (the earphone). This turns the signals back into useful information (speech). Other telecommunication systems use different types of signal and transmission path. The signals may be changes in voltage, changes in the intensity of a beam of light, or changes in the strength or frequency of radio waves. They may be transmitted using wires, optical fibres, or radio waves. microphone electrical signals ‘ites cable votage level sampled signals binary code information ‘nformation es digital transmission path pulses ‘A Like all tlecommunications systems, a simple telephone ‘A. How an analogue signal is converted into digital pulses. Real system sends signals from a coder to 2 decoder. systems use hundreds of levels and a much faster sampling rate Analogue and digital transmission ‘The sound waves entering a microphone make the voltage across it vary ~ as shown in the graph above right. A continuous variation like this is called an analogue signal. The table shows how it can be converted into digital signals - signals represented by numbers. The original signal is sampled electronically many times per second. In effect, the height of the graph is ‘measured repeatedly, and the measurements changed into binary codes (numbers using only 0's and 1's). These are transmitted as a series of pulses and turned back into an analogue signal at the receiving end. Advantages of digital transmission Signals lose power as they travel along. This is called attenuation. They are also spoilt by noise (electrical interference). To restore their power and quality, digital pulses can be ‘cleaned up’ and amplified at different stages by regenerators. Analogue signals can also be amplified, but the noise is amplified as well, so the signals are of lower quality when they reach their destination.RAYS AND WAVES Optical fibres For long-distance transmission, telephone networks often use optical fibres. ‘These are long, thin strands of glass which can carry digital signals in the form of pulses of light. At the transmitting end, electrical signals are encoded into light signals by an LED (light-emitting diode) or a laser diode. At the receiving end, the light signals are decoded by a photodiode which turns them back into electrical signals. Optical fibre cables are thinner and lighter than clectric cables. They carry more signals and with less attenuation. They are not affected by electrical interference, and cannot be “tapped. Storing and retrieving information When you listen to a recording, the music is being recreated electronically from stored information. Here are some of the methods used for storing and 4 optical fibres retrieving (getting back) information of this type: Vinyl dise Ths is the simplest and oldest Compact dise (CD) The information is MP3 player The information is stored system, though ite used now. The recorded digitally as a sequence of digitally on 2 microchip. This is an example information is recorded as a long, microscopic bumps on a metal layer inside of solid state storage: there are no moving \wavy-sided groove on the surface of the the disc. To retrieve it, the dsc is rotated parts Instead, millions of tiny cuits are disc. As the disc rotates, a stylus travels and laser light i reflected from the bumps. set either on (1) or off (0). During ~along the groove and vibrates because of The reflected pulses are picked up by a _playback, the settings ofthese circuits are the wavy sides, The vibrations are turned photodiode and turned into electrical retrieved in the correct sequence to into electrical signals (analogue). signals. OVDs work in the same way. produce electrical signals “1 The diagram on the right shows part of a telephone mee \_,[ Saba eer Bone 4] gia La In what form do the signals travel along the fibre? glial a b What does the laser diode do? ‘© What does the photodiode do? 4 e ‘What does the regenerator do? regenerator Give two advantages of sending digital signals rather ‘than analogue ones. Give two advantages of using an optical fibre link rather than a cable with wires init. seis 2 Give an example of information being stored ‘a indigital form bin analogue form. Related topics: sound waves 6.03; optical flxes 7.05; magnetic storage 9.04; signals 10.08; analogue and cial 10.03; LEDs 10.01RAYS AND WAVES 41 The diagram shows a light signal travelling through an optical fibre made of glass. lass fibre a State two changes that happen to the light when it passes from air into the glass fibre atB. [2] b Explain why the light follows the path shown after hitting the wall of the fibre at P. 2 Lenses are used in many optical devices. a*Copy and complete the table below about the images formed by some optical devices Ql [6] ‘optical device eye projector magnifying glass ature of image real size of image position of image magnified further from fens than the object b An object is placed closer to a converging (convex) lens than its principal focus. The figure shows an incomplete ray diagram for the formation of the image. lens i Copy and complete the ray diagram and draw the image formed. ii Use the ray diagram to help you describe three properties of this image formed by the lens. m1 Copy the diagram and draw the path of the ray of yellow light as it passes through and comes out of the glass prism, [2] yellow ight 1b What do we call this effect? m © State why light changes direction when it enters a glass prism. faa) FURTHER QUESTIONS 4 The figure shows an object OB in front of a converging lens. The principal foci of the lens are labelled F and F*, An image of OB will be formed to the right of the lens. lens a Copy the figure and draw two rays from the top of, the object B which pass through the lens and go to the image. 2 b Draw the image formed, Label this image 1. [1] *Calculate the linear magnification produced by the lens. B) 5 object ¥ : rT mage The diagram shows a converging lens forming a real image of an illuminated object. State two things that happen to the image when the object is moved towards P. 2) 6 Fis 30mm rom centre of lens Fo 08 20mm{rom centre of lens and 1S mm high | The diagram shows an object O placed in front of a convex (converging) lens and the passage of two | rays from the top of the object through the lens. | a Copy and complete the diagram (using the dimensions given) to show where the image is formed. uy b State two properties of the image. 2 *Use the information from the completed diagram and the equation height of image height of object to calculate the magnification produced by the lens. [3] linear magnification =sr conta bre In the diagrams above, rays of light strike a mirror and one end of an optical fibre. a Copy and complete the diagrams to show what will happen to each of the rays. (21 b Which diagram shows an example of total internal reflection? ul] © Give two practical uses of optical fibres. [2] i The light in each ray is monochromatic, What does this mean? 1) 8 Aray of light, in air, strikes one side ofa rectangular glass block. The refractive index of the glass is 15. a Drawa diagram to show the direction the ray will | take in the glass if the angle of incidence is 0°. [2] b Draw a diagram to show the approximate direction the ray will take in the glass if the angle of incidence is 45°, and calculate the angle of refraction, [4] © If the speed of light in air is 3 x 108 mis, calculate the speed of light in the glass. (2 9 Light and gamma rays are both examples of L electromagnetic radiation. a Name three other types of electromagnetic radiation, fe b State two differences between light and gamma rays. Ql ¢ The speed of light is 3 x 108 mis. Calculate the frequency of yellow light of wavelength 6X 10-?m. 2) 10 radio ute amma waves 8] | viet | |e mio: vise waves light 2 RAYS AND WAVES ‘The diagram shows the main regions of the clectromagnetic spectrum. The numbers show the frequencies of the waves measured in hertz (Hz). a Name the regions iA a ii B. a bi Write down, in words, the equation connecting wave speed, wavelength and wave frequency. fea) ii Calculate the frequency of the radiation with a wavelength of 0.001 m (10-3 m), given that all electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of 300 000 000 m/s (3 x 108 m/s) in space. [2] iti State to which part of the electromagnetic spectrum the radiation in part ii belongs. [1] ¢ Explain how and why microwaves can cause damage to or even kill living cells. fea] ‘The figure shows a square block of glass JKLM with a ray of light incident on side JK at an angle of incidence of 60°. The refractive index of the glass is 1.50. K, is ees 0 J ™ a Calculate the angle of refraction of the ray. [2] b*Calculate the critical angle for a ray of light in this glass. (1 ¢ Explain why the ray shown cannot emerge from side KL but will emerge from side LM. (31 a [less than’ the same as [greater than Copy the sentences below and use one of the three phrases above to complete each sentence, Each phrase may be used once, more than once or not at all. i The wavelength of radio waves is the wavelength of ultraviolet radiation, [1] ii Ina vacuum the speed of ultraviolet radiation is the speed of light. m0 iti The frequency of ultraviolet radiation is the frequency of infrared radiation. i Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is used to i send information to and from satellites [1] ié_kill harmful bacteria in food. aRAYS AND WAVES Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination, You can either photocopy itor print it from the file on the CD accompanying this book. The spread number, in brackets, tells you where to find more information, Core Level O The meanings of angle of incidence and angle of reflection. (7.02) 0 A law of reflection: the angles of incidence and reflection are equal. (7.02) ‘The image in a plane mirror, its features and how it is formed, (7.02) Demonstrating the refraction of light. (7.04) ‘The meaning of angle of refraction. (7.04) How light is refracted by a prism. (7.04) How a light ray passes through a parallel-sided block of glass or plastic. (7.04) Dispersion: how a prism forms a spectrum. (7.04) ‘Total internal reflection. (7.05) ‘The meaning of critical angle. (7.05) How a convex lens focuses a beam of light. (7.07) ‘The meanings of principal focus and focal length. (7.07) Drawing ray diagrams to show how and where a convex lens forms a real image. (7.07 and 7.08) O Electromagnetic waves: the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum. (7.11) 0 How all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum. (7.11) 0 The characteristics and properties of ooooo ocooo o o ~ microwaves ~ infrared rays ~ ultraviolet rays ~Xerays ~ gamma rays. (7.11 and 7.12) 1D Using electromagnetic waves in ~ communications (radio, TY, satellite, telephone) = remote controllers ~ medicine ~ security systems. (7.11 and 7.12) O Microwaves and X-rays: safety issues. (7.12) Extended Level As for Core Level, plus the following: Q Drawing accurate diagrams to find where a plane mirror forms an image. (7.02 and 7.03) O Defining refractive index in terms of speed. (7.04) © Optical fibres and their uses. (7.05 and 7.13) O The equation linking refractive index, angle of incidence, and angle of refraction (Snell's law). (7.06) Q Drawing ray diagrams to show how a convex lens can form a virtual image. (7.08) O Using a convex lens as a magnifying glass. (7.08) O The speed of electromagnetic waves (the speed of light). (7.01 and 7.11) O The meaning of monochromatic. (7.01) O The difference between analogue and digital signals. (7.13) (© OUP: this may be reproduced for clazs use solely forthe purchaser's institute