Curriculum Development

1. Trends in curriculum development

a. Subject-centred designs
b. Learner centred designs
c. Problem centred designs
d. The Product and Process Models of Curriculum Development
2. Technical scientific approach
a. Tylor model
b. The Hilda Taba Model
c. Olivers Didactic model
d. Hunkinss Decision Making Model
e. Backward design
f. Cognitive thought model
3. Non-technical/ Non scientific approach
a. Allan Glatthorn: Naturalstic Model,
b. The Experiential and Social Critical Models (Toohey)
c. The Deliberative model (Ornstein and Hunkins)
d. The postpositivism models
e. A Curriculum for the affect
f. Outcomes-based approaches
4. Requisite Components of a curriculum
a. Curriculum Content,
b. Curriculum experience,
c. Educational Environment
5. Teacher as a curriculum developer.
6. Reference

TRENDS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Subject-Centred Designs
Subject-Centred Designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum design. This
is because knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of the curriculum. Since
acquiring a body of content is integral in any school system, much thought has focused on
how best to present the knowledge, skills and values of subjects to learners.
a) Academic Subject Design: The academic subject design is both the oldest and best known
design to most people because it was the way many of them were educated. This design is
based on the belief that humans are unique because of their intellect and the quest for and
acquisition of knowledge is to feed this intellect. In the 1930s, Robert Hutchins indicated that
the academic subject design model should comprise; language and its uses (reading, writing,
grammar, literature), mathematics, science, history and foreign languages.
This model of curriculum design widely adopted as it is much easily interpreted in textbooks
and commercially available support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity
(whether it be lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to communicate
the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal form in textbooks. Also, people
are familiar with this format, having gone through themselves when in school.
However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking away their rights
to choose the content that is most meaningful to them. Stress on subject matter fails to foster
social, psychological and physical development and to some extent fosters an elite ruling
class based on knowledge (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Do you agree?
b) Discipline Design: A discipline is a specific body of knowledge that has its own methods
of inquiry, has its specialised words and terminology, has a tradition, has a collection of
literature and persons involved in the field as theoreticians and practitioners. Proponents of
the discipline design model emphasise the teaching of the disciplines in its pure form. In
other words, a student who studies biology would approach the subject as a biologist while
those who study history will study it as historians. The rationale for teaching the disciplines to
its proponents is that the school is a mini version of the world of intellect and that the
disciplines reflect that world.
c)Broad Fields Design: The broad fields design is also known as the interdisciplinary design.
The main reason for this design arose from the concern that subjects taught were too
compartimentalised and fragmented. For example, geography, geometry, literature, algebra
and so forth. The suggestion was to bring together content from different subject to form one
logical subject. For example, economics, sociology, political science, geography and history
were combined to form the social studies. Another example is language arts (composed of
literature, grammar, linguistics and spelling) and general science (composed of biology,
chemistry and physics).
One is the issue of breadth versus depth. For example, in studying the social studies over one
year, students are exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to only studying
economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the various social science concepts
will be superficial. For sure, a year of economics will expose students to more economics
concepts and principles than would a year of social studies. However, some may argue
whether students need such in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. If the educational

philosophy is to give students an overview of the social sciences, then the social studies might
be a logical choice.
d) Correlation Design: The correlation design model lies in between the academic design
model and the broad fields design. If you do not want your curriculum to consist of five
separate subjects and neither do you want the five different subject areas to be fused into
one subject, then the correlation design model might be an alternative. For example, you
may want to just fuse or correlate history with literature at the secondary school level. For
example, in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese occupation of Malaysia.
During the literature class, students read novels about life during that time period. However,
each subject retains its own distinct identity.
e) Process Design: In the discipline based design discussed earlier, students learn the
methods of inquiry used by experts in the respective discipline. For example, in studying
anthropology, students will learn the various ethnographic procedures used in the field.
Advocates of the process design model stress the learning of general procedures and
processes that are not applicable to any particular discipline. The most popular example of
the process design model is the teaching of thinking skills. Various educators have suggested
that students should be taught to think. Curriculum has focussed on the teaching of decision
making, problem solving, critical thinking and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified a list
critical thinking skills that should be taught, such as identification of fallacies, checking the
credibility of sources and so forth.
In the process design curriculum students are also taught to be aware of their thinking and
to take action when necessary. The good thinker is able to monitor his or her thinking and
take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general assumption is that there are general thinking
skills and processes are common regardless of the subject area. The aim of the curriculum
is to enhance these process skills applicable to all disciplines. Thinking critically is not unique
to geography or physics. Neither is thinking creatively the sole domain of art or literature.
2 Learner-Centred Designs
While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learnercentred designs. The early supporters of the child-centred curriculum were largely the
progressives. Emphasis was on the development of the whole child and this was most evident
in primary schools.
Learner-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs identified as child-centred,
romantic/radical designs and humanistic designs.

a) Child-Centred Design: Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should

actively participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related closely to

the daily lives of students unlike the subject-centred design which tends to separate content
from the daily lives of learner. In the child-centred design focus is on the needs and interests
of learners. An early advocate of the child-centred curriculum was French philosopher JeanJacques Rousseau (1712-1778) who in his book Emile made the child the focus of the
educational process. He emphasised that Living is the business that I wish to teach him.
When he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate, nor soldier, nor priest: he will be,
primarily, a man (cited in Michel Soetard, 1994, p.423). This did not mean children were
allowed to run free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according to their level of
development.

Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of the child-centred design is John Dewey
[Progressivism]. He argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with them four
basic impulses the impulse to communicate, to compare and contrast, to inquire and to
express themselves through language. In the child-centred design teaching and learning
draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of information they bring to the
classroom. Using this design teachers and students negotiate what if of interest to learners
and what content is to be included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate in
planning lesson units, its purposes, the focus of the content, the learning activities to be
introduced in the teaching-learning situations. Hence, in meeting the needs of students, the
child-centred curriculum will be constantly changing.
In the child-centred model, the interests and experiences of the learner become subjectmatter of the curriculum. Children are given the freedom to discover, first hand, by doing
things for themselves rather that being told how to do something. The project method
became a popular pedagogical strategy in the child-centred design in which children solved
problematic situations calling on their knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so
forth. In other words, the traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve
problems that are of interest to learners.

b) Radical Design: In this design, the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the child-

centred design. The difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the need for the
curriculum to reform society [we dealt with this in Module 2 Reconstructionism]. Proponents
of the radical design operate on the assumption that society is corrupt and repressive.
Children should be educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of
the radical design was Paulo Freire who opposed treating students as empty vessels to be
filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to the teacher-student dichotomy and
proposed the relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal, that is, the teacher
who learns and the learner who teaches.
According to proponents of this curriculum design, learning is reflective and not externally
imposed by those in power. The curriculum should be so designed to free the learner from
indoctrination. Knowledge is not the finished product to be acquired by learners because this
is indoctrination. Learning is something that results from the interaction between and among
people. Learners should challenge content and allowed to give their opinions about the
information given to them. Learners will value what they learn if they are allowed to construct
their own knowledge. [Constructivism]. When learners create meaning, they have ownership
over what they have learned resulting in genuine thought.

c)Humanistic Design: The humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s in response

to excessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the 50s and early 60s in the United
States. Proponents of the humanistic design based their arguments on the principles of
humanistic psychology. A basic question asked is whether the curriculum has allowed a
person to truly achieve his or her full potential. The curriculum should be designed to
empower learners to be involved in the process of realising their potential. Greater emphasis
was to be placed on the affective domain to permit students of feel and value.
One of the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of learning. To facilitate learning, the
teacher accepts learners as persons, placing importance on their feelings, their opinions and
caring for them. In other words, the teacher is able to view the world through the students
eyes. With such a curriculum, learners will be able to become fully functional persons,
capable of intelligent choice, are critical learners and able to approach problems situations

with flexibility and work cooperatively with others (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). The
humanistic curriculum design focuses on the interconnectedness of the cognitive, affective
and psychomotor domains. The design stresses the development of positive self-concept and
interpersonal skills of learners. The humanistic curriculum requires teachers with great skills
and competence in dealing with individuals. This may be difficult to obtain in all teachers.
There is also a tendency to overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of society.
3 Problem-Centred Designs
Besides the Subject-Centred and Learner-Centred curriculum design models, a third
category called the Problem-Centred Designs is proposed. The focus of this category of models
is the problems faced by society. Problem-centred designs are pre-determined before the
arrival of students. In other words, genuine life problems are selected and teaching-learning
activities organised around these issues. The learner is placed in the social setting to address
the problem. Unlike the learner-centred designs, the problems or issues discussed originate
from issues that are of concern to society. It aims to prepare students with relevant knowledge
and skills to fit into society when they leave school.

a)

Life-centred situations: In any society there are persistent life situations that are crucial to

a societys successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use of
leisure time, ethical character, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth. It was argued
by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a curriculum around such life
situations. Students will see direct relevance in studying such social issues when they are
related to their world. Also, having students study social or life situations will encourage them
to see ways to improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will
depend on what students need before entering the world of work and assuming adult
responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have already been met by the family,
religious institutions and other community organisations. So, the school should address those
needs not met through these institutions.
This life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students do not learn
much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state that this is not true because
the design draws heavily from the traditional subject areas. The content is organised in a
manner that allow students to see problems faced by society. In addressing societys pressing
problems, content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions to
current issues.

b) Core-design: A variation of the life-centred situations design is the core-design

model. Focus is still on the pressing problems of society. The difference being that
certain problems are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before
students enter school and adjusted when necessary. The core problems are taught
to all students in a block-time format whereby two or more periods of class time is
used. A problem solving approach is adopted in analysing social problems.
Students select a problem through consensus and work either individually or in
groups. Data is collected, analysed, interpreted and presented in class. Findings
are evaluated and discussed.
a) Academic

Subjects

----------------------------------------------------------

Design

Separate subjects or courses

Use structure of the discipline

Approach physics as a physicist

b) Discipline

Based

----------------------------------------------------------

Design

Use inquiry methods of the discipline

Interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary

Eg. Integrated science, whole language

---------------------------------------------------------SubjectCentred
Designs

c) Broad Fields
Design

its identity

d) Correlation
Design

Relate one subject to another with each keeping

Thematic approach or Team teaching

---------------------------------------------------------

Teaching thinking processes such as critical &

creative thinking, problem solving

Metacognitive training

Childs interest, need and experiences are

e) Process Design

a) Child-Centred
Design

emphasised

Learner-

b) Radical Design

Centred
Designs

Eg. project method

---------------------------------------------------------

Learning is reflective and not externally imposed

Society

is

flawed

and

curriculum

should

emancipate the learner

c) Humanistic
Design

---------------------------------------------------------

Stress development of self-concept of students

Uniqueness of individuals and importance of self-

actualisation
a) Life-Situations
Design

Life situations design

Subject matter focuses on pressing social issues

and solutions
---------------------------------------------------------

ProblemCentred

b) Core Design

Designs

Social functions core

Students work on problems crucial in todays

society
--------------------------------------------------------c) Social Problems

Social problems and reconstructionist designs

Analyse severe problems confronting humankind

Design

The Product and Process Models of Curriculum Development.

A commonly described, maybe slight simplistic version of two polarised curriculum models are
those referred to by many authors as the Product Model and the Process Model. Neary

(2003a, p39) describes these as one which emphasises plans and intentions (The Product
Model) and one which emphasises activities and effects (The Process Model)

Curriculum as Product
Also known as behavioural objectives model
Some key theorists: Tyler (1949), Bloom (1965)
Knowledge was seen as something similar to a product that is manufactured. Generally, one
starts knowing nothing, is taught, and then uses the gained knowledge, often by transmitting it
into action. For the most part, this point of view worked for quite some time, as it organized
learning quite neatly. The fundamental questions involved are
What are aims and objectives of curriculum?
Which learning experiences meet these aims and objectives?
How can the extent to which these aims and objectives have been met be evaluated?
How can these learning experiences be organised?
There was a series of steps leading to the product, and curriculum could be designed
accordingly. The steps were:
Step 1: Diagnosis of need
Step 2: Formulation of objectives
Step 3: Selection of content
Step 4: Organization of content
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences
Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate, and the ways and means of doing it.
Advantages of product model
Avoidance of vague general statements of intent
Makes assessment more precise
Helps to select and structure content
Makes teachers aware of different types and levels of learning involved in particular
subjects
Guidance for teachers and learners about skills to be mastered
Some of the problems with the product orientation:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Students are generally left out of the picture.

The objectives are not clear.
Students are not be able to solve unanticipated problems that arise.
At lower levels, behavioural objectives may be trite and unnecessary
Difficult to write satisfactory behavioural objectives for higher levels of learning.
Specific behaviours not appropriate for affective domain
Discourages creativity for learner and teacher
Enshrines psychology and philosophy of behaviourism
Curriculum too subject and exam bound

Curriculum as Process
One way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is to view it as a process. In this sense
curriculum is not a physical pre-defined set of resources or facts to be taught and learned, but
rather the interaction of teachers, students, and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what
actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate.
Focusses on
teacher activities and teachers role
Student and learner activities (perhaps most important feature)
Conditions in which learning takes place
Emphasis on means rather than ends
Learner should have part in deciding nature of learning activities
More individualised atmosphere
Assumption that learner makes unique response to learning experiences
Key thinker Stenhouse (1975) produced one of the best-known explorations of a process model
of curriculum theory and practice. He defined curriculum tentatively: "A curriculum is an
attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in
such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice".
He suggests that a curriculum is rather like a recipe in cookery. A curriculum, like the recipe
for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered
publicly is in a sense a report on the experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded
in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms. Finally, within limits,
a recipe can be varied according to taste, and so can curriculum. Stenhouse was not saying
that curriculum is the process alone; rather it is the means by which the experience of
attempting to put an educational proposal into practice is made available.
Advantages of process model
Emphasis on active roles of teachers and learners
Emphasis on learning skills
Emphasis on certain activities as important in themselves and for life
Disadvantages
Neglect of considerations of appropriate content
Difficulty in applying approach in some areas
MODELS OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum models are just as instructional designs. They bring competency in
educational process and teaching-learning. They are he best ways to proceed in formulating

theories of teaching taming, instruction should begin with what is known about leaning and
instruction. Teaching models are the basis of teaching theories. The curriculum models are
very useful for teachers for planning and agenizing educational process. They can use models
in the traction of curriculum preparing an outline for guiding students' activity and developing
instructional procedure for realizing objectives. Curriculum models are very close to models
of teaching.
Technical-Scientific Approach

In the Technical Scientific Approach, there are many different curriculum models. The original
work, by Tyler (1949) can be seen as one of the models. His work equates with the Product
model and is the foundation of the current Learning Outcomes Curriculum. A variation of the
approach is the Backward Design Model, advocated by Wiggins & McTighe (2010), and is
very popular with professional programmes as it links with the idea of Graduate Attributes and
Competences. This approach is frequently used in curriculum design in the Irish context
(ONeill, 2010). Finks (2003) popular curriculum model although non-technical and
humanistic in its approach, also draws on the concept of looking-back to design a
programme.
curriculum is objective, universal, and logical.
Reality can be defined and represented in symbolic form
aims of education can be made known and be addressed in a linear fashion.
Subject matter is the focus
It views curriculum development as something similar to engineering or architecture.
The basis for the procedure is the scientific method which involves a logical step-bystep procedure of problem solving.
The procedure is guided by well-defined objectives which are formulated based on the
analysis of normative needs as defined by developmental and other psychological
theories, rather than individual needs and interests.
It is a way of planning curricula to optimize students learning and to allow them to
increase their output.
According to Ornstein and Hunkins, the roots of technical-scientific approach are found
in the turn of Twentieth Century when schools attempted to adapt the principles of
bureaucracy to the methods that could be considered scientific.

HILDA TABA MODEL OF CURRICULUM

Hilda Taba developed Inductive Teaching Model
(i) Focus. Its main focus is to develop the mental abilities and lay emphasis upon concept
formation. It involves cognitive tasks in concept formation.
(ii) Syntax. The teaching is organized in nine phases. The first three phases are concerned with
the concept formation involving enumeration, grouping and labeling categories. The second
three phases are related to the interpretation of data by identifying relationship, explaining
relationship and drawing inferences. The last three .phases arc concerned with an application
of principles by hypothesizing, explaining and verifying the hypothesis.
(iii) Social System. In the all nine phases, the classroom climate is conducive to learning and
cooperative. A good deal of freedom should be given for pupil-activities. The teacher is
usually the controller and initiator of information. Teaching activities arc arranged in a logical
sequence in advance.
(iv) Support System. The teacher should help the students in dealing with the more complex
data and information. He should encourage them in processing the data, basically
designed to develop thinking capacity. A particular mental and cognitive task requires
specific strategy to improve thinking.
(v) Classroom Application. Taba designed his model to create inductive thinking among
learners. It helps to organize social studies curriculum so that cognitive process may be
facilitated. The learning experiences are the basis of information to arrange the content in an
effective sequence. The first three phases arc useful in dealing with elementary classes, while
the last three phases are useful for higher classes especially for science and language
curriculum.
(vi) Evaluation. Hilda Taba has developed teaching model as well as curriculum model. His
curriculum model is based on the evaluation concept. That in designing the outline of the
curriculum, evaluation plays significant role.
Hilda Taba has given four steps of curriculum
construction:
1. Identification of objectives.
2. Evidence for teaching-learning operation.
3. Evidences of factors affecting learning.
4. Evidences of pupil behavior pertaining
objectives

Step1. The curriculum is evaluated in the light of educational objectives identified for
preparing learning experiences. These objectives include-cognitive, affective, phychomolor
creativity and
perceptions, The evidences are collected for the identification of the
objectives.
Step 2. Appropriate teaching method, teaching technique and audio-visual aids are used for
generating appropriate learning situations, so that desirable objectives can be achieved.
Evidences are collected for the learning experiences.
Step 3. The evidences are collected for teaching-learning operations such as motivation
reinforcement which help in learning of the student. This influences the learning exercise.
Audio-visual aids makes learning experiences interesting. The students do not memorize the
content.
Step 4. The utility of the curriculum is evaluated on the basis of changes of behavior .'These
are evidences for realizing the education objectives. The examination system is objectivescentred. It is both qualitative and quantitative. An attempt is made to assess the total change
of behavior.
Stages of Curriculum Development
Stage 1. Deciding the kinds of evaluation data needed.
Stage 2. Selecting or constructing the needed instruments and procedure.
Stage 3. Analysing and interpreting the data to develop the hypothesis regarding needed
change.
Stage 4. Converting hypothesis into action.
Hilda Taba Linear curriculum model is based on the evaluation approach of B.S.Bloom
designed for examination reform. Evidences collected in different stages are used to diagnose
the weaknesses of the curriculum. These evidences are further used for formulating hypothesis.
The structure of the curriculum is mollified on the basis of verification of the hypothesis. Thus,
an empirical approach is used for the curriculum development. The hypothesis indicate the
type of modification needed in curriculum development.
The above steps and stages are used in sequences. This model of curriculum is highly
empirical. The modification is done on the basis of evidences.
Hilda Taba promotes the bottom-up or grass roots approach. She believed that teachers
should be involved in developing the curriculum. There should be a clear definite order to
curriculum design and that teachers must be involved in the process. There are 8 steps to the
Taba model of curriculum development:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Identify the needs of the students,

Develop objectives,
Choose content that matches the objectives,
Organize content considering the learners experiences and background,
Select instructional method that promote student engagement,
Organize learning experiences by sequencing content,
Evaluate to ensure mastery, and
Checking for the balance and sequence.

Application of the Taba Model

Taba model is currently used today in most curriculum designs. The steps still used are:
a. Identifying the needs of the students
b. Developing objectives
c. Selecting instructional methods
d. Organizing learning experiences
e. Evaluating
Tyler
For Tylers model of curriculum development, there are four basic questions:
1. What educational purposes should the institution seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
3. How can these educational experiences be organized effectively?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Ralph Tyler Model
- a well-known proponent of the technical-scientific approach discussed four basic
principles in curriculum development in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
published in 1949.
Tyler stated his curriculum rationale in terms of four questions that, he argued, must be
answered in developing any curriculum and plan of instructions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? [objectives]
He proposes that educational objectives originate from three sources: studies of society,
studies of learning, and subject-matter specialists. These data systematically collected and
analyzed form the basis of initial objectives to be tested for their attainability and their efforts
in real curriculum situations. The tentative objectives from the three sources are filtered through
two screens: the schools philosophy and knowledge of the psychology and learning, which
results in a final set of educational objectives.
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
[instructional strategies and content]
Criteria for selecting experiences; are they:
Valid in light of the ways in which knowledge and skills will be applied in out-of-school
experiences?
Possible in terms of time, staff expertise, facilities available within and outside of the
school, community expectations?
Best in terms o students learning the content?
Capable of allowing students to develop their thinking skills and rational powers?
Capable of stimulating in students greater understanding of their own existence as
individuals and as a member of groups?
Capable of nurturing in students openness to new experiences and a tolerance for
diversity?
Capable of facilitating learning and motivate students to continue learning?
Capable of allowing students to address their needs?
Such that students can broaden their interests?

Such that they will foster the total development of students in cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, social, and spiritual domains?
3. How can the educational experiences be organized? [organization of learning experiences]
Vertical vs. Horizontal Organization
Continuity refers to the vertical reiteration of major curricular elements.
Sequence refers to the experiences built upon preceding curricular elements but in more
detail.
Integration unified view of things.
Generally, we arrange educational experiences from the easiest to hardest and from most
general to specific. (There is some evidence that this is not the best way to teach, that students
are more likely to learn if specific skills or topics are introduced first.)
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? [assessment and
evaluation]
Evaluation is the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are
being realized by the curriculum. Thus, according to Tyler, curriculum evaluation is the process
of matching initial expectations in the form of behavioural objectives with outcomes achieved
by the learner.
Tyler developed his model in the late 1940s; it was the top-down approach.
1. By purposes, Tyler meant objectives identified from subject matter, the learners, and society.
2. The objectives were then filtered through two screens-the philosophy of the school and the
psychology of learning. This screening resulted in specific instructional objectives.
3. Educational experiences were based on the learners previous experience and their perceptions
brought to the situation.
4. Tyler believed that the experiences had to be organized as ideas, concepts, values, and skills, and
threaded throughout the curriculum.
5. Evaluation was important in determining program effectiveness.

Oliva Model of Curriculum

The Oliva Model is Linear, Deductive & Prescriptive. It combines a scheme for curriculum development
and a design for instruction. According to Oliva, a model curriculum should be simple,

comprehensive and systematic. The Oliva Curriculum development model is composed of

12components, namely:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

Component 1: Philosophical formulation, target, mission and vision of the institution

Component 2: Analysis of the needs of the community where the school is located
Components 3 and 4: General purpose and special purpose curriculum
Component 5: Organizing the design and implement curriculum
Component 6 and 7: Describe the curriculum in the form of the formulation of general
objectives and specific learning
Component 8: Define the learning strategy
Component 9: Preliminary studies on possible strategies or assessment techniques to
be used
Component 10: Implement the learning strategy
Components 11 and 12: Evaluation of learning and curriculum evaluation

To make the Oliva Model more simplistic, it can be set forth in 17 specific steps:
1. Specify the needs of the students in general.
2. Specify the needs of society.
3. Write a statement of philosophy and aims of education.
4. Specify the needs of students in your school.
5. Specify the needs of the particular community.
6. Specify the needs of the subject matter.
7. Specify the curriculum goals of your school.
8. Specify the curriculum objectives of your school.
9. Organize and implement the curriculum.
10. Specify instructional goals.
11. Specify instructional objectives.
12. Specify instructional strategies.
13. Begin selection of evaluation techniques.
14. Implement instructional strategies.
15. Make final selection of evaluation techniques.
16. Evaluate instruction and modify instructional components.
17. Evaluate the curriculum and modify curricular components
The model accomplishes two purposes;
1) Suggests a system that curriculum planners might wish to follow
2)Serves as the framework for explanations of phases or components of the process for
curriculum improvement
The Oliva curriculum reflects the learners, values, and needs of the population it will serve.
Oliva goes on to describe curriculum development as a cooperative group activity,
systematic, and (most) effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than piecemeal. This
illustrates the point that doing what we have always done is not acceptable in schools today
and educators must become active participants in making changes to their curriculum at the
district and classroom level.

The Hunkinss Decision making Model

In the first stage, curriculum conceptualization and legitimization, one confronts the various
concepts of curriculum and recognizes that the field of curriculum is complicated, that making
decisions about what ought to be taught and experienced by students is no simple decision.
Such decisions are fraught with subtexts and power politics, as well as the social and cultural
views that demand understanding. Those involved in the process of development realize that
they must engage in deliberation in order to agree on what the curriculum means in their
school or district. They must have a sense of the current discourses on curriculum. As part of
this first stage, those involved in developing the curriculum should be able to justify on what
basis they made their decisions. No other technical model of curriculum development stresses
as clearly the need for such essential curricular thinking and deliberation.
The second stage of the model, curriculum diagnosis, involves two major tasks: translating
needs into causes and generating goals and objectives from the needs. Such goals and
objectives serve as frameworks for determining content, the next stage in the model. Content
selection deals with what is to be taught The next step in the model is experience selection.
This stage deals with instruction. What teaching methods will be employed? What educational
activities will be designed to making learning effective? How will the content of the curriculum
be experienced so that the goals and objectives selected from the schools' program are
attained? After experiences have been selected, organized, and matched with the content of
the program, the curriculum is essentially ready for implementation. Curriculum
implementation has two stages, an initial piloting of the curriculum to work out any minor
problems in the program and the final diffusion of the tested program. The final stage of this
model is maintenance. Curriculum maintenance encompasses the methods and means by
which an implemented program is managed to assure its continued effective functioning.
A unique feature of this technical model is the feedback and adjustment loop depicted by the
dashed lines. This loop allows decision makers as they proceed through the model to refer
back to previous stages and to make necessary modifications.

1. Curriculum conceptualisation
-various concepts of the curriculum are identified and examined
-consider social and cultural views.
-conversing with various players to interpret the discourses generated in the field
2. Diagnosis
-translating needs into causes (what causes some needs)
-generating goals and objectives from the needs-these serve as guidelines or as statements
of expected learning outcomes
-also as frameworks for determining content.
3. Content selection
-The what of the curriculum, foundation of the curriculum comprising of facts, concepts,
principles, theories and generalizations
-Refers to cognitive processes, procedures students learn to use to apply their knowledge
and skills and to communicate to others
4. Experience selection
-deals with instruction- how content should be delivered
-what teaching methods to be employed, what activities to make learning effective and
enjoyable
5. Implementation
-initial piloting
-final diffusion of the tested program
6. Evaluation
-So as to decide to continue, modify or discontinue the program
7. Maintenance
-educating new staff, ensuring supply of materials, supervisors assisting teachers.

Backward Design
The idea of Backward Design comes from Wiggins & McTighe and suggests that learning
experiences should be planned with the final assessment in mind.

One starts with the end - the desired results (goals or standards) - and then derives the
curriculum from the evidence of learning (performances) called for by the standard and the
teaching needed to equip students to perform.
The Backward Design Model is similar to the subject matter analysis model in that it starts by
asking what students need to know for a particular task. The Backward Design Model asks,
"What should the students know? What skills should they possess at the end of the lesson?"
These questions form the first level of deciding on curriculum.
The final concept results from the second level of the decision making process which is what
essential knowledge both disciplined and no disciplined the students will possess based on
standards. The third level of stage one is to narrow the content to knowledge that will endure.
The second stage of the Backward Design Model, according to Wiggins and McTighe, is to
determine how to evaluate success (2004). What standards are necessary for the student to
be considered to be successful based on the stage one information? This stage should cause
teachers to begin to think like assessors. The final stage in the three stage process is to plan
the educational activities based on the goals students must accomplish. Some questions
teachers should ask at this stage are:
What knowledge and skills will students need to understand and perform to attain success with
the course? What activities will enable students to master the requisite knowledge and skills?
What must a teacher teach and how should the teacher teach it in order for students to become
knowledgeable and skillful in the identified content realm? What materials must be employed
to foster student success in the curriculum in question? Does the overall design of this course
or unit meet the principles of curriculum development?
There are three stages to backward design:
Stage 1: Identify desired results
What should students know, understand, and be able to do? What content is worthy of
understanding?What enduring understandings are desired?
In Stage 1 we consider our goals, examine established content standards (national, state,
district), and review curriculum expectations. Because typically we have more content than we
can reasonably address within the available time, we must make choices.This first stage in the
design process calls for clarity about priorities.
Stage 2: Determine acceptable evidence
How will we know if students have achieved the desired results? What will we accept as evidence
of student understanding and proficiency? The backward design orientation suggests that we
think about a unit or course in terms of the collected assessment evidence needed to document
and validate that the desired learning has been achieved, not simply as content to be covered
or as a series of learning activities. This approach encourages teachers and curriculum planners
to first think like an assessor before designing specific units and lessons, and thus to consider
up front how they will determine if students have attained the desired understandings.
Stage 3: Plan learning experiences and instruction

With clearly identified results and appropriate evidence of understanding in mind, it is now the
time to fully think through the most appropriate instructional activities. Several key questions
must be considered at this stage of backward design:
What enabling knowledge (facts, concepts, principles) and skills (processes, procedures,
strategies) will students need in order to perform effectively and achieve desired results?
What activities will equip students with the needed knowledge and skills?
What will need to be taught and coached, and how should it best be taught, in light of
performance goals?
What materials and resources are best suited to accomplish these goals?

The Cognitive Thought Model

The Cognitive Thought Model is a model based on the process of thought itself. This model
depicts the thought process in a way that shows existing knowledge as the basis of cognition
and new thought as informational ques that tap into existing knowledge in a way that builds
new knowledge from existing knowledge. This model is highly dependant on the resources and
context in which the learner is taking on new information. This model occurs in real-time. Lastly,
the Cognitive Thought Model can operate in conjunction with other processes, in the form of
information exchange, or alone.
The Cognitive Thought Model Steps

In the Cognitive Thought Model there are seven steps. The steps in this model are not subject
to reordering and must be completed in the sequential order given in order to achieve the
desired outcome. The steps include the following: Learner Readiness, Starting-Up, The Main
Process, Possible Interpretation and Resumption, Purpose, Contemplation, and Final State.

Step 1 - Learner Readiness is the ability of the learner to focus on the task at hand, be it physical
or mental, by ceasing other distractions.
Step 2 - Starting-Up, action initiation is made with conscious efforts by the learner.
Step 3 - The Main Process is when cognition of new thought begins. Simply stated, this is where
the learner stops preparing and becomes engaged.
Step 4 - Possible Interpretation and Resumption. This step occurs while the learner is engaged.
The learner has the option at this point to decide if it is more advantageous to continue in the
steps, if it is necessary to stop and restart, or if it is permissible to stop without restarting.
Step 5 - Purpose. The point of this step is to allow the learner to make a determination of
whether or not the original intent of the learning is being fulfilled.
Step 6 - Contemplation. In this step the learner, assuming the all prior steps were worked
successfully, must now start to look for a conclusion in the physical or mental task that they
have been engaged in.
Step 7 - Final State. This step allows the learner to contemplate the results of the prior
engagement that is now completed.
The cognitive thought model was created using research from neurological studies. Neural
control systems have identical characteristics to those of cognitive thought. The basic model
for this approach is the same as the model that we use to control physical movement. The way
we train athletes is the same way that we can train students.

Nontechnical Approach (Holistic)

The learner is the focus
They stress that not all ends of education can be known nor need to be known in all
cases.
Stress the learner through activity-oriented approaches to teaching and learning.
Curriculum evolves rather than being planned.
The persons most involved with the curriculum (learners) are involved in the planning.
Focuses on individual's self-perceptions and personal preferences, their own
assessments of self-needs, and their attempts at self-integration.
Curriculum development is subjective, personal, aesthetic, and transactional

 Curriculum development relies on intuitive forces

Curriculum development is a dynamic process fraught with much uncertainty
Non-scientific approaches are not common. However, it is necessary to provide some idea to
alternatives to scientific approaches. Teachers need to decide for themselves what is the most
appropriate form of curriculum development for their students. Subject matter tentatively
selected
in the development process has importance only to the degree that a student can find meaning
in it for himself.

Allan Glatthorn Naturalistic Model

Glatthorn advocated eight major steps to his model:
Step 1 -Assess
the alternatives.
Persons involved in the planning process should
systematically examine alternatives to the current curriculum.
Step 2 - Stake out the territory. This step involves establishing a tentative course prospectus
that addresses for whom the course is designed, whether it will be elective or required, its basic
information and knowledge, and how it relates to existing courses in the school.
Step 3 - Develop a constituency. Those involved must communicate with various groups and
convince them of the soundness of the program being created.
Step 4 - Build the knowledge base. Once the curriculum team has sufficient support, it is
necessary to create a knowledge base. This includes content or subject matter, gathering data
on students, on faculty skills and receptivity to the suggested program, community willingness
to support the innovation and what research information might lend credence to the new
program.
Step 5 - Block in the unit. During this step, the curriculum developers determine the nature and
number of the units to be covered, the general objectives for the units as well as how the unit
topics might be sequence. In contrast to the technological approach, rather than one
particular sequence defined for all students to follow, there are several avenues, all sensitive
to students' interests, learning styles, and other differences.
Step 6 - Plan quality learning experiences. After blocking in the units, developers engage in
designing particular sets of learning experiences that will address the general objectives. This
stress on learning experiences, rather than on subject matter, distinguishes this approach and
qualifies it as nontechnical.
Step 7 - Develop the course examination. Tests and grades do not drive the curriculum. Both
teacher and student participate in determining the means of documenting the means of
documenting whether learning has occurred and the quality of such learning.
Step 8 - Develop the learning scenarios; The final step of the process is creating learning
scenarios rather than the standard curriculum guide. These scenarios denote a detailed
statement of the unit objectives, a suggested number of lessons, and a recommended list of
learning experiences.

Assess the alternatives

Stake out the territory
Develop a constituency
Build the knowledge base
Block in the unit
Plan quality learning experiences
Develop the course examination
Develop the learning scenarios

Deliberation model.
The Deliberative model (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004) addresses the gap between complete
freedom for students to choose what they would like to learn and the prescription of learning.
The model suggest a deliberative process whereby the educators make known their ideas to
the students and together plan an educational journey, constantly feeding back and adjusting
this plan.
This model has six steps.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Public sharing
Highlighting agreement and disagreement
Explaining position
Highlighting change in position
Negotiating points of agreement
Adopting a decision

Step 1 - Public Sharing. In this first stage, the group makes evident the various assumptions
regarding the nature and purpose of the curriculum. Perceived needs are presented. Possible
content and potential pedagogies are introduced. lndividuals identify information that they
think has potential relevance to the task of.creating a curriculum or curricula. Peepie are
encouraged to communicate their beliefs regarding the nature of content. What is a student,
what are optimal tearning environments, what are teachers' functions?
Step 2 - Highlighting Agreements and Disagreements. Next, the group identifies agreements
and common interests, beliefs, and understandings regarding the nature of school and the
curriculum, what they think should be taught, and the approach to instruction. that is most
valuable to the roles of teacher and the student. They openly talk about where there are
disagreements amongst the group.
Step 3 - Explaining Positions. In explaining positions, members of the curriculum deliberative
team realize that, while it is essential to share and explain divergent viewpoints, there is still the
shared group purpose of creating a curriculum. To ereate such a curriculum takes individuals
who appreciate each other as professionals and do not consider their colleagues to be
adversaries. This is no small feat. Elucidating positions is more than just data gathering to
justify a position (e.g., is a particular group of students failing, and do they really need this
type of curricular solution). It also includes detailing the assumptions or philosophical
orientations that individuals bring to curricular deliberation.

Step 4- Highlighting Changes in Position. As people listen to their colleagues explain their
views, the new data furnished often are enough to trigger a reconsideration of some point or
points regarding the curriculum. People find themselves convinced by an argument given. In
deliberation, all involved are engaged in a mutual give and take so as to
synthesize best decisions as to what the curriculum should be.
Step 5 Negotiating Points of Agreement. The fifth phase of the deliberative process engages
participants in searching for solutions. Here participants seek closure, however tentative, about
what the curriculum will be, what topics students will experience, what instructional approaches
will be employed, and what educational intents will be satisfied. People use the deliberative
process to persuade others, and perhaps even themselves, that they are pursuing right action
regarding the ereation and suggested delivery of a curriculum. In the sharing, highlighting,
and explaining of positions, people believe that the power of arguments and the soundness
and reliability of data will facilitate making proper choices regarding the curriculum.
Step 6 - Adopting a Decision: At this final phase, individuals achieve consensus as to the nature
and purpose of the curriculum by denoting specific curricular topics, pedagogy, educational
material, school environment, ways of
implementation, and ways of assessment. What the curriculum as plan looks like depends
greatly on the social, political, and philosophical composition of the curriculum deliberation
team.

The Experiential and Social Critical Models (Toohey , 2000)

Post-positivism models
The post-positivism models take this one step further, where they advocate less intervention by
educators, even advocating chaos to occur in order that order may result. In this approach

students are not presented with ideas or information with which they will agree, but with
encounters with content arranged as such that students will see that they have to seek more to
find frameworks and generate fresh understandings
This approach is challenging to record, without being prescriptive, however it can allow for
unexpected and creative learning to occur.

Post-positivism models embrace

uncertainty and chaos allowing
order to emerge,
Curriculum should help student search for instabilities. These do not result in a specific
model, but emphasise the social and emergent quality of curriculum.
This model causes curriculum makers to assume an openness to process, an eye for the
unexpected, and a willingness to let individuals interact with curricular matters as they evolve.
Proponents of this approach to curriculum believe that the actual planning process assumes
its own ethos. Ends are transformed into new beginnings; people in the process are altered;
students, teachers, and even course materials are changed as the dynamics and chaos unfold.
The aim of curricula designed from this viewpoint is not to have students arrive at
understandings, but essentially to realize that they have more work to do, to continually make
their understandings new.
Curriculum becomes a process of development to be experienced in unique and at first
unimagined ways, rather than a static body of knowledge to be presented within a strict time
table.
Curriculum participants are engaged in a critical dialogue with themselves and others in the
planning process and interact with an evolving content of the curriculum. This approach to
curriculum creation can never be articulated with a universal precision. If you gather together
to create a curriculum, it will emerge.

Affective Education
The affective education movement emphasized the feelings and values of the child. While
cognitive development was considered important, it was seen only as an adjunct to affective
growth. Thus, curriculum leaders were concerned primarily with identifying teaching and
learning activities that would help the child understand and express feelings and discern and
clarify values. For example, Brown (1975), who advocated confluent education (a curriculum
approach that attempted to synthesize physical, emotional, and intellectual growth),
recommended a fantasy body trip as a learning activity. Students are asked to close their
eyes
and move into themselves; each person is asked to concentrate on different parts of the
body, beginning with the toes, then all participants share their experiences.
OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION
Outcome-based education (OBE) is an educational theory that bases each part of an
educational system around goals (outcomes). By the end of the educational experience each
student should have achieved the goal. There is no single specified style of teaching or
assessment in OBE; instead classes, opportunities, and assessments should all help students

achieve the specified outcomes. The role of the faculty adapts into instructor, trainer, facilitator
and/or mentor based on the outcomes targeted.
Differences from traditional education methods
In a traditional education system, students are given grades and rankings compared to each
other. Content and performance expectations are based primarily on what was taught in the
past to students of a given age. The goal of traditional education was to present the knowledge
and skills of an older generation to the new generation of students, and to provide students
with an environment in which to learn. The process paid little attention (beyond the classroom
teacher) to whether or not students learn any of the material.
Benefits of OBE
1. Clarity
The focus on outcomes creates a clear expectation of what needs to be accomplished by the
end of the course. Students will understand what is expected of them and teachers will know
what they need to teach during the course. Clarity is important over years of schooling and
when team teaching is involved. Each team member, or year in school, will have a clear
understanding of what needs to be accomplished in each class, or at each level, allowing
students to progress. Those designing and planning the curriculum are expected to work
backwards once an outcome has been decided upon, they must determine what knowledge
and skills will be required to reach the outcome.
2. Flexibility
With a clear sense of what needs to be accomplished, instructors will be able to structure their
lessons around the students needs. OBE does not specify a specific method of instruction,
leaving instructors free to teach their students using any method. Instructors will also be able
to recognize diversity among students by using various teaching and assessment techniques
during their class. OBE is meant to be a student-centered learning model. Teachers are meant
to guide and help the students understand the material in any way necessary, study guides,
and group work are some of the methods instructors can use to facilitate students learning.
4.Comparison
OBE provides an opportunity for comparison across institutions. On an individual level,
institutions can look at what outcomes a student has achieved to decide what level the student
would be at within a new institution. On an institutional level, institutions can compare
themselves, by checking to see what outcomes they have in common, and find places where
they may need improvement, based on the achievement of outcomes at other institutions. The
ability to compare easily across institutions allows students to move between institutions with
relative ease. The institutions can compare outcomes to determine what credits to award the
student. The clearly articulated outcomes should allow institutions to assess the students
achievements rapidly, leading to increased movement of students. These outcomes also work
for school to work transitions. A potential employer can look at records of the potential

employee to determine what outcomes they have achieved. They can then determine if the
potential employee has the skills necessary for the job.
5. Involvement
Student involvement in the classroom is a key part of OBE, students are expected to do their
own learning, so that they gain a full understanding of the material. Increased student
involvement allows students to feel responsible for their own learning, and they should learn
more through this individual learning. Another aspect of involvement is parental, and
community involvement, while developing curriculum, or making changes to it. OBE outcomes
are meant to be decided upon within a school system, or at a local level. Parents and
community members are asked to give input in order to uphold the standards of education
within a community, and to ensure that students will be prepared for life after school.
Drawbacks of OBE
Definition
The definitions of the outcomes decided upon are subject to interpretation by those
implementing them. Across different programs or even different instructors outcomes could be
interpreted differently, leading to a difference in education, even though the same outcomes
were said to be achieved. By outlining specific outcomes, a holistic approach to learning is
lost. Learning can find itself reduced to something that is specific, measurable, and observable.
As a result, outcomes are not yet widely recognized as a valid way of conceptualizing what
learning is about.
Assessment problems
When determining if an outcome has been achieved assessments may become too
mechanical, looking only to see if the student has acquired the knowledge. The ability to use
and apply the knowledge in different ways may not be the focus of the assessment. The focus
on determining if the outcome has been achieved leads to a loss of understanding and learning
for students, who may never be shown how to use the knowledge they have gained. Instructors
are faced with a challenge; they must learn to manage an environment that can become
fundamentally different from what they are accustomed to. In regards to giving assessments
they must be willing to put in the time required to create a valid, reliable assessment, that
ideally would allow students to demonstrate their understanding of the information, while
remaining objective.
Generality
Education outcomes can lead to a constrained nature of teaching and assessment. Assessing
liberal outcomes such as creativity, respect for self and others, responsibility, and selfsufficiency, can become problematic. There is not a measurable, observable, or specific way
to determine if a student has achieved these outcomes. Due to the nature of specific outcomes,
OBE may actually work against its ideals of serving and creating individuals that have achieved
many outcomes.

Involvement
Parental involvement, as discussed in the benefits section can also be a drawback, if parents
and community members are not willing to express their opinions on the quality of the
education system, the system may not see a need for improvement, and not change to meet
students needs. Parents may also become too involved, requesting too many changes, so that
important improvements get lost with other changes that are being suggested. Instructors will
also find that their work is increased; they must work to first understand the outcome, then
build a curriculum around each outcome they are required to meet. Instructors have found
that implementing multiple outcomes is difficult to do equally, especially in primary school.
Instructors will also find their work load increased if they chose to use an assessment method
that evaluates students holistically.

Curriculum Planning Model Illustrating an Outcomes-based Approach to Curriculum

Development.

Role of Teachers in the Curriculum Process

While curriculum specialists, administrators and outside educational companies spend
countless hours developing curriculum, it is the teachers who know best what the curriculum
should look like. After all, they work directly with the students meant to benefit from the
curriculum. In order to create a strong curriculum, teachers must play an integral role in
every step of the process.
Planning
Teachers know their students' needs better than others involved in the curriculum process.
While state or federal standards often dictate the skills covered by the curriculum, a teacher
can provide insight into the types of materials, activities and specific skills that need to be
included. Teachers from multiple grade-levels may collaborate to identify skills students
need at each level and ensure that the curriculum adequately prepares students to advance
to the next grade-level and to meet the standards.
Creation
Because teachers must use the curriculum, they should have input in its creation. A teacher
can gauge whether an activity will fit into a specified time frame and whether it will engage
students. If multiple teachers will use the curriculum, allow as many of them as possible to
provide input during the creation stage. As teachers provide input, they will gain ownership
in the final product and feel more confident that the curriculum was created with their
concerns and the needs of their particular students in mind.
Implementation
Teachers must implement the curriculum in their own classrooms, sticking to the plan that
has taken so much time, careful planning and effort to create. When a teacher fails to
properly implement a strong curriculum, she risks not covering standards or failing to
implement effective practices in the classroom. That does not mean a teacher cannot make
minor changes. In fact, a strong curriculum is designed to allow a teacher to be flexible
and to insert a few personalized components or choose from among a selection of
activities.
Reflection
Reflecting on a curriculum allows teachers and others involved in the process to find any
weaknesses in the curriculum and attempt to make it better. Teachers reflect on curriculum
in multiple ways, such as keeping a journal as they implement the curriculum, giving
students surveys and reviewing the results or analyzing assessment data and individual
student performance. Not only can reflection serve to improve a specific curriculum, it may
guide the creation of new curriculum.

References
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Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace.
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