Combinational Logic vs Boolean Algebra

a ab
b ab + cd
c e (ab+cd)
d cd
e

Schematic Diagram: Boolean Algebra:

5 primary inputs 5 literals
4 components 4 operators
9 signal nets
12 pins
1
 Some Definitions
• Complement: variable with a bar over it
A, B, C
• Literal: variable or its complement
A, A, B, B, C, C
• Implicant: product of literals
ABC, AC, BC
• Minterm: product that includes all input variables
ABC, ABC, ABC
• Maxterm: sum that includes all input variables
(A+B+C), (A+B+C), (A+B+C)

2-<2>
Digital Discipline: Binary Values
• Typically consider only two discrete values:
– 1’s and 0’s
– 1, TRUE, HIGH
– 0, FALSE, LOW
• 1 and 0 can be represented by specific
voltage levels, rotating gears, fluid levels,
etc.
• Digital circuits usually depend on specific
voltage levels to represent 1 and 0
• Bit: Binary digit
1-<3> 3
 George Boole, 1815 - 1864
• Born to working class parents
• Taught himself mathematics and
joined the faculty of Queen’s
College in Ireland.
• Wrote An Investigation of the Laws
of Thought (1854)
• Introduced binary variables
• Introduced the three fundamental
logic operations: AND, OR, and
NOT.

1-<4>
 Boolean Algebra
• Set of axioms and theorems to simplify Boolean
equations
• Like regular algebra, but in some cases simpler
because variables can have only two values (1 or 0)
• Axioms and theorems obey the principles of
duality:
– ANDs and ORs interchanged, 0’s and 1’s interchanged

1-<5>
Boolean Axioms

1-<6>
Boolean Theorems

1-<7>
 T1: Identity Theorem
• B 1=
• B+0=

1-<8>
 T1: Identity Theorem
• B 1=B
• B+0=B

B
1 = B

B
0 = B

1-<9>
 T2: Null Element Theorem
• B 0=
• B+1=

1-<10>
 T2: Null Element Theorem
• B 0=0
• B+1=1

B
0 = 0

B
1 = 1

1-<11>
 T3: Idempotency Theorem

• B B=
• B+B=

1-<12>
 T3: Idempotency Theorem
• B B=B
• B+B=B

B
B = B

B
B = B

1-<13>
 T4: Identity Theorem

• B=

1-<14>
 T4: Identity Theorem
• B=B

B = B

1-<15>
 T5: Complement Theorem
• B B=
• B+B=

1-<16>
 T5: Complement Theorem
• B B=0
• B+B=1

B
B = 0

B
B = 1

1-<17>
Boolean Theorems: Summary

1-<18>
Review of Boolean algebra and switching functions

AND, OR, NOT

AND A B C OR AB C NOT A C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

A A
1 A 1 1

A A
0 0 A
0

0 dominates in AND 1 dominates in OR

19
Boolean Theorems of Several
Variables

1-<20>
1. Identity A* 1 =A A+1= 1
A*0= 0 A+ 0 =A

2. Complement A + A’ = 1 A * A’ = 0

T8. Distributivity Law

A
A(B+C) = AB + AC A B
B
A
C C

A+BC = (A+B)(A+C) A
A B
B A
C
C
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T7. Associativity

(A+B) + C = A + (B+C) C A
A B
B C

(AB)C = A(BC) C A
A B
B C

T12. DeMorgan’s Law (A+B)’ = A’B’ (AB)’ = A’ + B’

T11. AC + AB + BC’ = AC + BC’

22
 Simplifying Boolean Expressions:
Example 1
• Y = AB + AB

1-<23>
 Simplifying Boolean Expressions:
Example 1
• Y = AB + AB
= B(A + A) T8
= B(1) T5’
=B T1

1-<24>
 Simplifying Boolean Expressions:
Example 2
• Y = A(AB + ABC)

1-<25>
 Simplifying Boolean Expressions:
Example 2
• Y = A(AB + ABC)
= A(AB(1 + C)) T8
= A(AB(1)) T2’
= A(AB) T1
= (AA)B T7
= AB T3

1-<26>
 DeMorgan’s Theorem

• Y = AB = A + B A
B
Y

A
Y
B

A
Y
B

• Y=A+B=A B A
B
Y

1-<27>
 Bubble Pushing
• Pushing bubbles backward (from the output) or
forward (from the inputs) changes the body of
the gate from AND to OR or vice versa.
• Pushing a bubble from the output back to the
inputs puts bubbles on all gate inputs.

A A
Y Y
B B

• Pushing bubbles on all gate inputs forward

toward the output puts a bubble on the output
and changes the gate body.
A A
Y Y
B B
1-<28>
Part I. Combinational Logic

I) Specification
– a. Language
– b. Truth Table
– c. Boolean Algebra
– d. Incompletely Specified Function

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Binary Addition (I’ll explain this again, don’t
worry)
5
+ 7
12
Carry Sum

1 1 1 Carry bits
1 0 1 5
+ 1 1 1 7
1 1 0 0 12
Carryout Sums

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 Half Adder

Truth Table
a
a b carry sum

Sum 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
b 1 0 0 1
Carry 1 1 1 0

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Switching Function
Sum (a,b) = a’b + ab’

Ex:
Sum (0,0) = 0’0 + 0*0’ = 0 + 0 = 0
Sum (0,1) = 0’1 + 0*1’ = 1 + 0 = 1
Sum (1,1) = 1’1 + 1*1’ = 0 + 0 = 0

Carry (a, b) = a*b

a
a
sum carry
b
b

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 Full Adder
Truth Table

Cin Id a b cin carry sum

0 0 0 0 0 0
a 1 0 0 1 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1
Sum 3 0 1 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 0 1
b
5 1 0 1 1 0
Carry 6 1 1 0 1 0
7 1 1 1 1 1

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 Minterm and Maxterm (google these.
Important concept)
Id a b cin carryout
0 0 0 0 0 a+b+c
1 0 0 1 0 a+b+c’
2 0 1 0 0 a+b’+c
3 0 1 1 1 a’ b c
4 1 0 0 0 a’+b+c
5 1 0 1 1 a b’c
6 1 1 0 1 a b c’
maxterm
7 1 1 1 1 abc

minterm

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Minterms
f1(a,b,c) = a’bc + ab’c + abc’ + abc

a’bc = 1 iff (a,b,c,) = (0,1,1)

ab’c = 1 iff (a,b,c,) = (1,0,1)
abc’ = 1 iff (a,b,c,) = (1,1,0)
abc = 1 iff (a,b,c,) = (1,1,1)

f1(a,b,c) = 1 iff (a,b,c) = (0,1,1), (1,0,1), (1,1,0), or (1,1,1)

Ex: f1(1,0,1) = 1’01 + 10’1 + 101’ + 101 = 1

f1(1,0,0) = 1’00 + 10’0 + 100’ + 100 = 0

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Maxterms
f2(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)(a+b+c’)(a+b’+c)(a’+b’+c)

a + b + c = 0 iff (a,b,c,) = (0,0,0)

a + b + c’ = 0 iff (a,b,c,) = (0,0,1)
a + b’ + c = 0 iff (a,b,c,) = (0,1,0)
a’ + b + c = 0 iff (a,b,c,) = (1,0,0)

f2(a,b,c) = 0 iff (a,b,c) = (0,0,0), (0,0,1), (0,1,0), (1,0,0)

Ex: f2(1,0,1) = (1+0+1)(1+0+1’)(1+0’+1)(1’+0+1) = 1

f2(0,1,0) = (0+1+0)(0+1+0’)(0+1’+0)(0’+1+0) = 0

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f1(a,b,c) = a’bc + ab’c + abc’ + abc
f2(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)(a+b+c’)(a+b’+c)(a’+b’+c)
f1(a, b, c) = m3 + m5 + m6 + m7 = Sm(3,5,6,7)
f2(a, b, c) = M0M1M2M4 = PM(0, 1, 2, 4)

Question: Does f1 = f2?

Yes! Prove using Boolean algebra.

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Minterm 4 = ab’c’

Id a b cin carry minterm 4 = ab’c’

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0 1 0 0 0
3 0 1 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1 0
6 1 1 0 1 0
7 1 1 1 1 0

Only one row has a 1.

38
Maxterm 4 = a’+b+c

Id a b cin carry maxterm 4 = a+b+c

0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1
3 0 1 1 1 1
4 1 0 0 0 0
5 1 0 1 1 1
6 1 1 0 1 1
7 1 1 1 1 1

Only one row has a 0.

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 Don’t care values

Certain situations arise when we are concerned with only

a limited set of input combinations. The outputs to the rest
Input combinations are marked by “x”. This means that we
don’t care whether these outputs are 1 or 0, because we don’t
have any concern with them. These don’t care terms are
actually a blessing in disguise because while making
K-maps, they greatly reduce the circuitry

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 Incompletely Specified Function
Don’t care set is important because it allows us to
minimize the function
Id a b f (a, b)
1) The input does not
0 0 0 1 happen.
1 0 1 0
2 1 0 1 2) The input happens, but
3 1 1 - the output is ignored.

Examples:
-Decimal number 0… 9 uses 4 bits. (1,1,1,1) does not happen.
-Final carry out bit (output is ignored).

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 Incompletely Specified Function

g1(a,b,c) canonical form

Id a b c g(a,b,c)
w/ minterms
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 g2(a,b,c) canonical form
2 0 1 0 - w/ maxterms
3 0 1 1 1 Does g1(a,b,c) = g2(a,b,c)?
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 -
No! Because there is a group of
6 1 1 0 0 Don’t Care set. (g1 only covers
7 1 1 1 1
the onset, g2 only covers the
offset).

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 Definitions

Literals xi or xi’

Product Term x2x1’x0

Sum Term x2 + x1’ + x0

Minterm of n variables: A product of n variables

in which every variable appears exactly once.

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 Implementation
Specification  Schematic Diagram
Net list,
Switching expression
Obj min cost  Search in solution space
(max performance)

Cost: wires, gates  Literals, product terms,

sum terms

We want to minimize # of terms, # of literals

44
Implementation (Optimization)
Karnaugh map – 2D truth table

ID A B f(A,B) minterm

0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 A’B

2 1 0 1 AB’

3 1 1 1 AB

45
Function can be represented by sum of minterms:
f(A,B) = A’B+AB’+AB
This is not optimal however!
We want to minimize the number of literals and terms.
We factor out common terms –

A’B+AB’+AB= A’B+AB’+AB+AB
=(A’+A)B+A(B’+B)=B+A

f(A,B) = A+B

46
On the K-map however:
A=0 A= 1
AB’
0 2
B=0 0 1
1 3
B=1 1 1

A’B AB

f(A,B) = A + B
47
 Another Example
ID A B f(A,B) minterm

0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 A’B

2 1 0 0

3 1 1 1 AB

f(A,B)=A’B+AB=(A’+A)B=B
48
On the K-map:
A=0 A= 1
0 2
B= 0 0 0
1 3
B=1 1 1

A’B AB

f(A,B)=B

49
 Using Maxterms
ID A B f(A,B) Maxterm

0 0 0 0 A+B

1 0 1 1

2 1 0 0 A’+B

3 1 1 1

f(A,B)=(A+B)(A’+B)=(AA’)+B=0+B=B
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 Two variable K-maps

Id a b f (a, b)
0 0 0 f (0, 0)
1 0 1 f (0, 1)
2 1 0 f (1, 0)
3 1 1 f (1, 1)

2 variables means we have 22 entries and thus we have

2 to the 22 possible functions for 2 bits, which is 16.

a
f(a,b)
b
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 Two-Input Logic Gates

AND OR
A A
Y Y
B B

Y = AB Y=A+B

A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

52
 More Two-Input Logic Gates

XOR NAND NOR XNOR

A A A A
Y Y Y Y
B B B B

Y=A+B Y = AB Y=A+B Y=A+B

A B Y A B Y A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

53
Three variables K-maps

Id a b c f (a,b,c)
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 1
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 0

54
 Corresponding K-map

Gray code b=1

(0,0) (0,1) (1,1) (1,0)
0 2 6 4
c=0 1 1 1 1
1 3 7 5
c=1 0 0 0 0

a=1

f(a,b,c) = c’

55
 Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)
• Boolean expressions can be minimized by combining
terms
• K-maps minimize equations graphically
• PA + PA = P
A B C Y Y Y
AB AB
0 0 0 1
00 01 11 10 C 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 1 C
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ABC ABC ABC ABC
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 ABC ABC ABC ABC
1 1 1 0

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 K-map
• Circle 1’s in adjacent squares
• In the Boolean expression, include only the
literals whose true

Y
A B C Y AB
0 0 0 1 00 01 11 10
C
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0

y(A,B)=A’B’
57
Another 3-Input example

Id a b c f (a,b,c)
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 1
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 -
7 1 1 1 1

58
 Corresponding K-map

b=1
(0,0) (0,1) (1,1) (1,0)
0 2 6 4
c=0 0 1 - 1
1 3 7 5
c=1 0 0 1 1

a=1

f(a,b,c) = a + bc’

59
Yet another example

Id a b c f (a,b,c,d)
0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 -
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 0
7 1 1 1 0

60
 Corresponding K-map

b=1
(0,0) (0,1) (1,1) (1,0)
0 2 6 4
c=0 1 - 0 1
1 3 7 5
c=1 1 0 0 1

a=1

f(a,b,c) = b’

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 4-input K-map

A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 01
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 10
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0

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 4-input K-map

A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 01 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 10 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0

63
 4-input K-map

A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 01 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 10 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 Y = AC + ABD + ABC + BD

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 K-maps with Don’t Cares

A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 X
0 1 1 0 1 01
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11
1 0 1 0 X
1 0 1 1 X
1 1 0 0 X 10
1 1 0 1 X
1 1 1 0 X
1 1 1 1 X

65
 K-maps with Don’t Cares

A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 X 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 X
0 1 1 0 1 01 0 X X 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11 1 1 X X
1 0 1 0 X
1 0 1 1 X
1 1 0 0 X 10 1 1 X X
1 1 0 1 X
1 1 1 0 X
1 1 1 1 X

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 K-maps with Don’t Cares

A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 X 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 X
0 1 1 0 1 01 0 X X 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11 1 1 X X
1 0 1 0 X
1 0 1 1 X
1 1 0 0 X 10 1 1 X X
1 1 0 1 X
1 1 1 0 X
1 1 1 1 X Y = A + BD + C

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